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About Google Book Search Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web at |http: //books .google .com/I SCHOOL or EDUCATION LIBRARY TEXTBOOK COLLECTION GIFT OF THE PUBLISHERS STANFORD N^p/ UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES The retail price of this book is $ DEFABTMEHT OF ED701TI0N LELAND STANFOBD JUNIOR UNIVEBSITT NIAXWEDLL'S EJNQLISH SERIEJS ADVANCED LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR USE IN HIGHER GRAMMAR CLASSES BY WM. H, MAXWELL, M.A., Ph.D. CITY Sty^RINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CITY OF NEW YORK. NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 593636 MAXWELL'S EMGLISH COURSE First Book in English. For Use in Elementary Grades. Introductory Lessons in English Grammar. For Use in Grammar Grades. Advanced Lessons in English Grammar. J Book Company. PREFACE. OoNsmBB for a moment what grammar is. It is the most elementary part of logic. It is the beginning of the analysis of the thinTring process. The principles and rules of grammar are the means by which the forms of language are made to correspond with the universal forms of thought. The distinctions between the various parts of speech, between the cases of nouns, the moods and tenses of verbs, the functions of participles, are dis- tinctions in thought, not merely in words. Single nouns and verbs express objects and events, many of which can be cognized by the senses : but the modes of putting nouns and verbs together, express the relations of objects and events, which can be cognized only by the intellect ; and each differ- ent mode corresponds to a different relation. The structure of ^very sen- tence is a lesson in logic— J^n SHuirt Mill, In the passage quoted above, the value of grammar as a disciplinary study is fully set forth. Its practical uses, as dis- tinguished from pure intellectual gymnastic, are to give the student practice in comprehending thought when expressed in language,* and to enable him to express correctly and clearly his own .experiences and thoughts. These three uses of gram- mar—as an intellectual discipline, as a key to unlock the mean- ing of sentences, and as furnishing the rules for correct expres- sion—have been constantly kept in view in writing this book. The name, "Advanced Lessons in English Grammar," is employed, because the work embraces all the theory and all the practice that are necessary during the last two years of a Grammar School, or throughout a High School, course. It is intended to serve two purposes : first, that of a text-book, sup- plying the principles and rules of the science, as well as their application in copious exercises ; second, that of a book of refer- ence, to be used whenever difficulties are presented either in the student's own compositions, or in literature that is subjected to critical study. In the first fifty-eight pages, a bird's-eye view is given of the parts of speech and of the construction of the English sentence. * 8ee Preface to the author*s ** Introductory Lessons in TTingHah Gram* mar.** 2 PREFACE, This will serve as a review of an introductory book, if such has been studied ; or as an introduction to the scientific study of the subject, if such study is commenced with this volume. Grammar is divided into Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. Each of these departments is treated separately ; and the com- pliment is paid to the teacher of supposing that he or she knows, without explicit directions, how to use a text-book. No ai)ology is needed for restoring to its proper place as a department of grammar, word-formation, or derivation ; and equally in accord with the demands of the best teachers is the addition of a full chapter on the history of the English language (chapter viii. of the book). The chapter on Economy of Attention contains many things which can not be conveniently classified under any one of the four great divisions of grammar, but which every student of English should know As the title indicates, the leading idea is borrowed from Herbert Spencer's invaluable Essay on Style. The illustrative sentences and the exercises have, for the most part, been selected or prepared specially for this work. A few, however, have been taken from standard English and Ger- man works on grammar. In this respect, as well as for many valuable suggestions, the author gratefully acknowledges his in- debtedness to the grammars of Dr. Morris, Dr. Abbott, Dr. Bain, Professor Rush ton, Mr. Salmon, Mr. Mason, Professor Meikle- john. Professor Whitney, Dr. Smith, Mr. Daniel, Dr. l^atham, Dr. Adams, Dr. Ijowth, Dr. Morell, and to the monumental work of Maetzner ; to the philological works of Professor Max Muller, Professor Whitney, Professor Earle, Professor Lounsbury, and Dr. Peile ; to Dr. Gurrie's " English Composition ** ; to Dr. Hodgson's *• Errors in the Use of Enghsh"; and to the etymo- logical dictionaries of Mr. Wedgwood, Professor Skeat, and Su- perintendent Kennedy. The author tenders his thanks to the friends who have done him the honor to read the proof and to make criticisms during the progress of the work. He will regai*d it as a special favor if those who use this book will send him suggestions leading to its improvement. W. H. M. CONTENTS. PART I. PAQS Chapter I. — The Sentence 5-11 Lian^ruage and the Sentence. Declarative, Interrogative, Impera- tive, and Exclamatory Sentences. Grammar Defined. Chapter II. — The Parts op Speech 11-30 The Parts of Speech Defined and lUnstrated. Chapter HI. — Elements op the Sentence . . . 30-39 Subject and Predicate. Predicate Complement, and Object. Ad- jective and Adverbial Modifiers. Chapter IV. — Classification op Sentences . . . 39-58 Sentences Classified as Simple, Complex, and Compound. Analysis and Synthesis. ^ PART II. Chapter I. — The Divisions op Grammar .... 69-63 Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody, Defined. Chapter II.— Orthography 63-76 The Alphabet. The Sounds of the lietters. Use of Capitals. Syl- lables. Accent. Bules for Spelling. Chapter III.— Etymology 76-206 The Parts of Speech: their Subdivisions, Proi)ertie8, Inflections, Usee, and Parsing. (3) 4 GOjrrENTa, PAOl Ohaptkb rv.— Formation op Words 206-221 Words Classifled as Priine and Composite. Comi>o]ient Elements of Words. English, Latin, and areek Prefixes. English, Latin, and Qreek Suffixes. Models of Word-Analysis. Chapter V.— Syntax 222-297 Elements of the Sentence. Classification of Sentences. Concord, Government, and Order. Elliptical Sentence& Punctuation. Parsing. Analysis of Sentences. Chapter VI.— Economy of Attention .... 297-306 Variety of Expression. Long and Short Sentences. Pleonasm. Direct and Indirect Quotation. Climax, Synecdoche, Simile^ and Metaphor. Chapter VII.— Prosody 306-313 Terms Defined and Illustrated. Iambic, Trochaic, Anapestic, Dactylic, and Amphibrachic Measures. Mixed Meters. Allit- eration. Chapter VIII.— Histohioal Sketch of the English Lan- ouAOB . • ....... 314-322 ADVANCED LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. PA R T I . CHAPTER I. THE SENTENCE. 1. Langfuage is the name given to any means of expressing thoughts or feehngs. The most important varieties of language are spoken language and written language. 2. Spoken language and written language are made up of wordSy and words are united in groups called sentences. Sentences are used for three purposes: 1.. To state or tell something. I am mona/rch of aU I sv/rvey. Homer was hUnd, 2. To ask about something. Have you ever crossed the ocean? Ca/rt you visit us to- morrow? 3. To express a command or an entreaty. Distrust the ma/n that flatters you. Give us this day owr daiiy bread. (6) ENGLISH QBAMMAB. 3. Definition. — ^A sentence is a group of words used as a statement, a question, a command, or an entreaty. 4. A declarative sentence is a sentence that states or declares something. MageOan sailed around the world, 5. An interrogative sentence is a sentence used to ask a question. Can gold gain friendship f 6. An imperative sentence is a sentence that ex- presses a command or an entreaty. Send for a physician. Pity the sorrows of a poor old man. 7. A declarative sentence may express strong feel- ing, such as anger, sorrow, grief, etc. The same is true of interrogative and imperative sentences. Sen- tences that do this are by some authors called ex- clamatory sentences. When the feeling expressed is very strong, the sentence should end with an excla- mation point, but this kind of punctuation shoidd be used as httle as possible. _ ( The house is on jvre I Exclamatory ) -^ Declakatiyi: Sentenci». j ^^^ «^^^2/ v^ you are! I May I never see yonr face again ! Exclamatory j Wasn't the music grand f IxTERROOATiYE Sektences. ( TTie hoy ! Oh! wJiere was Tie t Exclamatory j Heap high the farmer's wintry hoard t Impcratiye Sentences. ( Jump far out, hoy, into the uxkve I THE SENTttNOB. 7 8. A declarative sentence may contain a question or a command. Th& g&M&man oaM, ** Is yov/r fath&r at home f** . TTie captain shouted, " Gha/rge for the batteries/" 9. An interrogative sentence may contain a de- clarative or an imperative part. Did the teacher say, ** Yov/r answer is wrong, John" f Does not the Bible command, *' Swea/r not at aU" f 10. An imperative sentence may consist in part of a question or of a statement. Ask yov/rself often, ** Is my action right f" Bead more slowly, ** He gvoeth His beloved sleep" From the use of a sentence, however, there is no difficulty in telling the class to which it belongs. Exercise 1. — Tell the kind of sentence. 1. Benevolence is a duty and a pleasure. 2. Hast thou a star to guide thy path? 3. Lead us to some far-oflP sunny isle. 4. The blackbird whistles from the thorny brake. 5. Shall we always be youthful, and laughing, and gay? 6. O, could I fly, I'd fly with thee. 7. Trust no future, howe'er pleasant. 8. O, Hamlet, thou hast cleft my heart in twain! 0. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll. \ 10. What flower is this that greets the morn? 11. Who wrote, "I would not live alway"? 12. "Where is my mother?" was his constant inquiry. 13. "Where are you going, my pretty maid?" 14. "I'm going a-milking, sir," she said. 15. Ask them, "Why stand ye here all the day idle?" 8 ENGLISH QBAMMAB. QU ESTIONS. What is the general name given to any means by which we eziiress thoughts or feelings? Can you give an example of a thought about the school? About your brother? About your mother? About your reader? About a chestnut tree? About a rose? What means did you use to ex- press these thoughts? If I wished you to come to me, how oould I make n^ wish known without using words? What kind of language is this? If you saw a poor child cold and hungry, how would you feel about it? What name would you give to youi* feeling? Can you tell me something that would make you feel angry? Sad? Thankful? Sorry? Penitent? In what way may all these feelings be expressed ? What are the two general names that may be given to all things ex- pressed by language ? What are the two most important varieties of lan^ruage? Which of the senses is addressed by spoken language ? Which by written lan- guage? What is langruage comxx)sed of? What are words combined into? What are the three purposes for which sentences are used? How are sentences classified according to their purposes? What mark of punctuation do you place after a declarative sentence? An imperative sentence? An interrogative sentence? After a sentence that expresses strong feeling? SUBJECT AND FBEDICATE. 11. Every sentence must be composed of two parts, a subject and a predicate. In defining subject and predicate, the declarative sentence is referred to, because it is the kind of sen- tence in most common use. In the declarative sentence, the subject consists of the word or words used to denote that about which the statement is made. The predicate consists of the word or words that express the statement. €Md is Jiea/oy. The careless bay neglected Ms lesson. TBS aSNTENCS. 9 Pour home on the mountain is bleak and xcHd. The noisiest dogs we generaUy the least dangerous. 12. The subject and predicate of an interrogative sentence are easily recognized if the question is fii:st put into the form of a declarative sentence. Did you see the procession yesterday f Has every pupil in the doss prepared his lesson f Whom did the people of New York choose for governor 9 SiOifeeU. Predicates. You did see the procession yesterday. Every pupil in the doss has prepared his lesson. The people of New York did choose whom for governor. 13. The svbject of an imperative sentence is gen- erally thou or you^ usually understood, but sometimes expressed. The predicate consists of the words that express the command or entreaty. You rtm away to school now. Turn not thou awa/y. 14. DEFiNTrioN. — The subject of a sentence denotes that about which something is said. 15. Definttion. — The predicate of a sentence is that which is said of the thing denoted by the sub- ject. Exercise 2. — Mention the subject and the predir cate of each of the following sentences : 1. Old events have modern meaning. 2. The lights of the village gleam through the rain and the mist. 3. The cricket and the kettle sang very well together. 10 EN0LI8H GRAMMAR. 4. Two hundred years have changed the character of a great continent. 5. The captain's quick eye caught one possible chance of escape. 6. How far that little candle throws its beams! 7. The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. 8. A faint mist hung over the surface of the lake. 9. The old oaken bucket arose from the well. 10. The faithful, stout-hearted fellow carried his wounded master on his back. 11. The mocking-bird is the sweetest musician among Ameiv ican birds. 12. The smallest boats should always keep near the shore. 13. Can the clerk of the weather tell whether to-morrow will be warm? 14. Did the waves wash away your fine castles of sand? 15. Away down south lives a pretty, golden-haired child. 16. Did that mischievous little elf break the spider's web? 17. A tiny vase of tangled flowers stands on the table at my side. 18. In the shade of the trees the weary travelers found rest. 19. That worn old book in the comer of my shelf is one of my truest friends. 20. An unmannerly young daisy laughed* at the antics of the grasshoppers. QU ESTIONS. What do we call that part of a sentence which denotes that about which something is said? What is the other part of the sentence called? Make a declarative sentence about the subject of a sentence. Tell the subject and predicate of your sentence. Make an interrogative sentence about the predi> cate of a sentence. Tell the subject and predicate of the sentence. Make an imperative sentence about grammar. Tell the subject and predicate of it. GBAMMAB. 16. Grammar tells us how words are formed, how they are classified, how they are joined to THE PABT8 OF SPEECH, 11 form sentences, how sentences are classified, and the relations that both words and sentences bear one to another. English Grammar tells all of these things with . regard to the English language. QU ESTIONS. State four things Grammar tells us about words. Mention two things Grammar tells ns about sentences. CHAPTER II. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. THE zrouN. 17. All the words in our language are arranged in classes called parts of speech. The use that is made of any particular word determines the class to which it belongs. K we examine the sentences em- ployed in speaking and writing, we find that the different uses that can be made of words are not many. One of the largest and most important classes of words is made up of the names of the things that we speak and write about. The words 60^/, house, memory, kindness, etc., are examples of this class. Such words are called nouns, — ^a word that means nam.es. In the following sentences the nouns are in full- faced type: Flowers cmd ferns grew on the bank of the lake* 7 12 BNQLI8H GRAMMAR, The prince was dad m a garment of velvet that glistened \uith gems* The next gtUe that sweeps from the north wiU bring to our ears the da^h of resownding artn^t. The war of the Colonies against England excited much sympathy i/n Europe. 18. Definition. — ^A noun is a word used as the v*^ name of something. QU ESTIONS What is a part qf speech f How do we determine the class to which a word belongs? Give the names of six things in your school-room. In your f home. Of six flowering plants. Of six forest trees. Of six wild birds. Of *^ four domestic birds. Of six kinds of fish. What class-name is given to the names of the things that we thus speak and write about? Define noun. THE ADJEOnVB. 19. Things that have the same name are often very different from one another^ and their differences enable us to separate a particular thing from every other thing having the same name. For example, the word apple is the name of a class of things so much ahke that we may call them all by the same name ; yet it is difficult to find two that are exactly alike in every respect. They have differences in color, size, taste, etc., and these differences are de- noted by such words as red, yellow, large, sweet, smooth, ripe, etc. Again, they are distinguished by words denoting their situation, number, etc. ; as when we say this apple, that apple, these apples, any apple, two apples, some apples, many apples, the ap- ple, an apple, etc. A word thus used to point out more exactly the THE PABT8 OF SPEECH, IS thing we refer to, is called an adjective, — ^a word meaning joined to. This class of words gets its name from the fact that the adjective generally stands next to the noun to which it belongs. Thus, good hoys, luscious grapes, a girl. Frequently, however, it is separated from the noun to which it belongs by some other word or words. The boys a/re good. The man looked sick. The adjectives in the following sentences are in full-faced type. A taUf stately ULy grew beside a pretty bed of modest little violets. A beautiful bird sat on a lofty bough, and sang a melo- dious song. The wise old owl dozed m an ancient tower, ruined a/nd ivy-covered. 20. Definition.— An adjective is a word used to aid in denoting more exactly what is named by a noun, or the equivalent of a noun. Exercise 8. — Point out all the nouns and adjectives. Tell to what nowa each adjective belongs, 1. The thirsty, weary traveler drank of the cool, clear waters of the spring. 2. A wonderful castle, tall and grand, was built on a hill beside the beautiful Rhine. 3. People in cold countries wear garments of thick, warm fur. 4. The peddler, a lame, unshaven fellow, had a tattered blue umbrella and a basket of old newspapers and worn pam- phlets. tS 14 BNGLI8H QBAMMAB. 5. On the banks of the Xenil, the dark Spanish maiden Comes up with the fruit of the tangled vine laden. 6. On the wide lawn, the snow lay white and deep. 7. The Danish king could not repel the ocean tide. 8. The belfry tower of the Old North Church rose above the graves on the hiU, lonely and spectral and somber and still. 9. Above the mists rose the snowy sunmiits of sharp needles of rock, which seemed to float in the air, like a fairy world. 10. At the door, on summer evenings, ^^ Sat the little Hiawatha. QUESTIONS. In what respects do all words classified as nouns, agree? Tell some of the resx>ects in which the things classified under the name orange may differ. Under the name Aoum. Under the name Aotm. Under the name giri. Under the name box. What is the general or class-name given to words that express such differences? What is the literal meaning of the \j word adjective f Why is it so called? Define adjectivi, THE VEBB. 31. With nouns and adjectives alone it is not possible to say any thing — that is, to make a state- ment, ask a question, or express a command. Thus, the expression. The boy, becomes a sentence only when we add some word like studies, walks, runs, came, spoke, worked. A word of this class must either be actually used, or clearly implied, in every sentence. That the verb is the most important word in language is indicated by its name, verb, from verbum, which signifies tvord ^ Most of the words of this class express action of some kind. Ths horse runs. T7\e dog barks. The lady hcis gone. The teacTier tviU come. The hoy might have been detained. THE PARTS OF 8PBB0R. 15 A few verbs serve simply to connect two or more words so as to form a sentence. The poor child (is was iviU be seemed looked ^ appeared ^ >■ sick. The simplest form of the verb is a single word, as strike, see, love; but a verb is often made up of two or more words, as did strike, may have seen, should have been loved, 33. Definition. — ^A verb is a word used to say something about some person or thing. aU E STIONS. Tell BomethiD^ an animal is. Tell something an animal does. What words in the sentences you have just made, enable you to say something about the animal? What is the class-name given to aU such words? What is the literal meaning of the word verbf What does this indicate? What is the difference between a noun and a verb? In the sentence, The poor child is 8ick^ what is the use of the verb isf Give some examples of verbs made up of two or ^ore words. Define verb. i TSE ADVEBB. 33. We have seen that an adjective is joined to a noun to aid in denoting more exactly the meaning of the noun. Just as the noun apple is appUed to a great many things that resemble one another, and differ in color, number, etc., so the verb go denotes action of which there are many varieties with re- spect to the time, manner, and place of its perform- ance. 16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The men go -> §iawip. rapidly. cheerfuUy. daily. now. there. The oar goes - ' eaMy. smoothly, doumward. yonder, constantly, soon. A word thus used with a verb to denote the time^ pl8ice, manner, or some other characteristic of the action expressed by the verb, is called an adverb. The nearness of the adverb to the verb is implied in the name adverb^ meaning near or at the verb. 24. The adverb is joined also to the adjective, generally to denote the degree or measure in which the meaning expressed by the adjective is to be un- derstood. ( not "I ( extremely \ The gvrla a/re \ nearly > ready. James is < very V sick. ( quite ) ( slightly ) 25. Again, an adverb is often joined to another adverb to indicate the degree or measure of the lat- ter's meaning. Th>e ship sailed very swifU/y. He spoke somewhat hopefuUy. 26. The adjective and the adverb are said to modify the meaning of the words to which they be- long; that is, they change or measure the meaning of those words. Thus, read denotes a particular action; but noth- ing about the word shows how, or when, or whera. THB PARTS OF 8PBE0H. 17 or Tinder what circumstances, the act is intended But read slowly^ read carefully^ read now, read aloud, are expressions in which the measure of meaning of the word read is diminished so as to denote an action in a particular manner, or at a particular time. The adjective red, when joined to the noun apple, has a similar effect in lessening the extent or measure of the application of the word apple. The word modn ify is derived from the word modus, a measure or bou/ndary, and another word meaning to m^blce. A modifier, while it thus lessens the extent of application that a word may have, adds to its ex- actness of meaning. Thus, lazy hoy and go early show much more exactly the kind of boy intended, and the tim,e of performing the action expressed by go, than the un- modified words could show. 27. Definition. — A modifier is a word whose mean- ing is used to render more exact that of another word. Note. — ^A modifier may consist of two or more words, as will be explained hereafter. 38. Definition. — ^An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Exercise 4. — Point out the verbs a/ad the adverbs in the following sentences, and tell the word whose mea/nmg each adverb modifies: \ 18 EITGLIBH GRAMMAR. . 1. The judge rode slowly down the lane. 2. The brook ripples and dances merrily on its way to the ocean. 3. The moon shone softly through the trees. 4. The lady sang very sweetly a song I had often heard in my childhood. 5. The traveler rapidly climbed the hill and soon was gazing eagerly into the beautiful valley. 6. The lark flies swiftly and soars very high. 7. Many very poor people hve respectably and comfort- ably. 8. The ship that sailed away so gayly never came back. 9. The young hunter held his rifle carefully and shot di- rectly upward. 10. A tiny crocus shyly peeped from her grassy home and softly whispered to the wild rose. QUESTIONS. TeU in single words different ways in which a person may write; walk; speak; read. What do such words generally denote with regard to the action expressed? What is the class-name applied to them? What is the literal meaning of the word adverb f With what other parts of speech is the adverb frequently used? Q-ive examples. What do the adverbs in the sentences you have formed, express? Wherein do an adjective and an adverb agree? Wherein do they differ? In the expression, The white horee^ is the number of animals to which the word fuyrse may be applied, increased, or is it diminished, by the use of the adjective white f Why? In the expression. She singe etoeeUy^ is the applica- tion of the verb singe increased or diminished by the use of the adverb sweetly f Why? What word do we use to denote the relation that exists between a noun and an adjective, a verb and an adverb? What other use may a modifier have beside that of lessening the ai>- plication of the word to which it is joined ? Define modifier. Define adverb. To ths'Tbaoheb.— It is not correct to say that an adverb modifies a verb. It is only partially correct to say that an adverb modifies the meaning of a verb. To be consistent, we should say that the meaning of the adverb modifies the m/eaning of the verb. This last form of expression is, however, too clumsy for general use. As far as possible, pupils should be required at least to say. that the meaning of a noun^ etc., is modified by an adjective, and that of a verb, etc., by an adverb. TSB PARTS OF aPEBOH. 19 THE FBOirOXTir. 29. The four parts of speech already described include nearly all the words in our language. The remaining words make up four other classes, one of which is called the pronoun. The name pronowa denotes that this part of speech is employed as a substitute for the noun, for pro means /or, or instead of. By using the pronoun, we are able to avoid the awkwardness of speech that would come from fre- quently repeating a noun. For example, without the pronoun, we could not easily avoid such sentences as, Mary sadd that Ma/ry would study Mary's lessons. The boys promised the boys* teacher that the boys wovM obey the teacher^s requests. With the aid of pronouns, these sentences are much improved. Ma/ry said that she would study her lesson. The boys promised their teacher that they would obey his requests. Another great advantage arising from the use of the pronoun is that a single pronoun may denote a multitude of persons or things, all having different names, or even names that are not known by the speaker. Thus, the pupils in a school, or the people in a crowd on the street, may be denoted by such pronouns as you^ your, they^ their j them^ all, these, I we, who, whom, which, it, etc. Have fM fl/ndshed their eaxMnples f These ofl-e citizens, but those a/re soUdiera* 20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 30. Definition.— A pronoun is a word that de- notes persons or things without naming them. r - Exercise 5. — Fill the blanJcs with pronouns^ and then make a list of the pronotma. 1. The fishers dropped lines in the lazy tide. 2. Speak clearly if speak at aM ; Carve every word before let it fall. — Holmes. 3. When Europeans first explored North America found occupied by roving tribes of men looked very unlike . 4. rejoice to see the morning sun send beams through window. 5. The longer live, the more rapidly years seem to pass. 6. are blest lives are peaceful. 7. The falcon's bill has a deep notch in — ; helps in tearing food in pieces. 8. Then the little Hiawatha Learned of every bird language, Learned names and all secrets. 9. The boy put hat here, and hat there ; but why placed so, do not know. 10. Every man should think that is responsible for ^ own actions. QUESTIONS. ^ What are the two principal uses of the premounf What is the literal meaning of the word? Define pronoun. THB FBEPOSinOB'. 31. K the words that make up a sentence be dis- arranged, that is, if their relations to one another be destroyed, we get a meaningless result TEB PARTS OF SPEECH. 31 Thus, the following words express no thought: The room wmdow entered the open am, bwrgla/r fh/rough. But if they are arranged so as to be properly re- lated to one another, we have a sentence. The bwrglar entered the room through an open wmdow. There is a class of words whose use is to connect and bring into relation two unrelated words, one of which is a noun or a pronoun. A word of this kind is called a preposition, so named because it i^ derived from two Latin words meaning placed before. Speak to abiyut tvith against for - Gha/rles, A castle " in by over upon under >■ the sea. 32. The preposition and its accompanying noun or pronoun, either with or without modifying words, form what is called a phrase. A phrase so formed is called a prepositional phrase, to distinguish it from other kinds of phrases of which we shall learn here- after. The ca/noe floatea down the river. He sa/t within a small, cheerless, wnfv/mMied room. The noun or pronoun following a preposition is called the object of the preposition ; and the preposi- tion is said to connect the object with some word that usually precedes the preposition. Thus, in the foregoing sentences, rher is the object of the preposition down ; and down connects floated and rvo&r. 22 ENGLISH GMAMMAB. The function or use of the prepositional phrase is 1. To modify the meaning of a noun or a pro- noun, as is done by the adjective. Be is a boy of courage = He is a courageotis hoy. 2. To modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, as is done by the adverb. He acted tuith promptness = He acted promptly* The prepositional phrase is called an adjective phrase modifier when it is used like an adjective, and when it does the work of an adverb, it is an adverbial phrase, or adverbial phrase modifier, 33. Definition. — ^A preposition is a word used with a noun or its equivalent, so as to form an adjective modifier, or an adverbial modifier. Exercise 6. — Mil the blanks with prepositions from the following list, that will bring the words into re^ lotion. at by on of for from up down with within over past 1. dropped 2. waited - 3. waited - 4. watched 5. knelt — upon into under near amid aboard - the clouds, the station, the train. - my bedside. above below beside beneath among opposite about after before until aroimd during beyond across between against through concerning the rug. 6. a field th6 house. — a circle. — home. 7. diameter — 8. a dream — 9. ill fever. 10. traveled the continent. THE PABT8 OF 8PEE0R. 28 11. quarrels 12. ladder - 13. nest 14. asleep — 15. friends - 16. life — 17. house — 18. wrecked — friends the bam. the branches. — the sermon. — the seas. the grave. — the comer. — the coast. 19. walk — 20. degrees 21. work — 22. went — 23. dived - 24. errands 25. letter — 26. soar — breakfast. — zero, sundown, his business, the waves. — the poor. - a cousm. the clouds. Exercise 7. — Fill the Hkinks with prepositions from the foregovag list, that will connect the words and brmg them into relation: 1. Heaven hides all: creatures the book fate. 2. Ten vessels came port the storm. 3. The boys live home their parents. 4. Henry found his ball a bench which stood the old oak. 5. The storms a century have whistled the branches this famous tree. 6. The travelers went the ocean, the burning sands the desert, high mount£iins and deep val- leys, and returned home many months sight-seeing. 7. The boat went the tide, but the wind. 8. The farmers hide the kernels com the cool, damp earth. 9. As we walked the meadow we heard the bleating ' the flocks the hill. 10. Every moment that flies our heads takes the future and gives the past. 11. 0\xr canoe touched the shore. a short distance — r the spot where our friends were standing. 12. The children went out the shower to gather flowers ^^ the hillside. 13. Clouds gather the storm, but sunshine follows it. 14. I shot an arrow the air. 15. The traveler told us his thrilling adventure a lioni \5 84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. QUESTIONS. What is the result if the words of a sentence are disarrangedr Whal is the class-name given to the words that are used to bring into relation two unrelated words? What else do iirepositions do? Why is a preposition so called? What is a prepositional phrase composed of? What is the noun or pronoun following a prei)osition called ? What parts of siteeoh may he modified by phrases? G-ive instances. Define prepoeUion, THB CON J U Jil Ci'iON. 34. Another class of connecting words is the conjunction, — a word that means joining together. The preposition, as we have seen, connects wordSj and brings them into relation. The conjunction gen- erally connects sentences and brings them into rela- tion. Tfie motmtams look bhte and because if therefore they a/re far a/wa/y. 36. Although the principal office of conjunctions is to connect sentences, yet some of them, especially a/nd^ are sometimes used to connect words. They a/re brother and sister. The lady wore a black and wMte dress, 36. Unlike the preposition, the conjunction can not be used as the introductory word in an adjective or adverbial phrase. This is the test by which the preposition may always be distinguished from the conjunction. THE PARTS OF SPEECH, 36 37, In uniting two or more sentences by means of conjunctions, there is often a great saving of worda The resulting sentence, however, may always be separated into those from which it was derived. My cousin fished and swam m the lake on Saturday, This sentence consists of two sentences, united and shortened : J My oousm fished m the lake on 8atv/rda/y. {My oousm swa/m in the lake on Satwrda/y, 38. When the conjunction is used to connect words in a sentence, the sentence can not be de- composed in the way shown above. Thus, take the sentence, The human body consists prmcipally of blood, flesh, and hone. This is not equivalent to The hu/ma/n body consists principaMy of Nood, The humnam, body consists prvncipaUy of fl^esh. The hu/ma/n body consists principally of bone. 39, Conjunctions often occur in pairs, and some- times the first of a pair is used not to connect, but to mtrodvce. Though lie were a gia/nt, yet I shovHd not fea/r him. He is neither honest nor Pruthful. He is either sick or very tired. 40. Definition. — ^A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentencea V 26 ENGLI8B GRAMMAR. EzEBCiSE ^.—From the following list select smtdble conjv/nctions to fill the blcmJca : and nor that except therefore but so unless cdthough nevertheless for if whether hence notwithstanding or else either because in order that yet than neither however so that • 1. He was punished he was guilty. 2. He was pardoned — - he was guilty. 3. I would pay you I had the money > 4. We can not go -^— we finish our task. 5. He can not cross the river — the water is shallow. 6. The man came, he did not stay long. 7. The poor man gave more the rich man. 8. the rain came down in torrents, we started on our dance journey. 9. I will trust him, — 10. The lady could — beautifully. 11. Everybody believed him, - 12. We must — go at once, he deceived me before. smg. she played 13. I will lend you the money, — badly. 14. I have not decided I shall walk he must have been truthful. — stay at home all day. you seem to need it so ride. 15. The children played outside while the day was fine, came into the house as soon as it began to rain. Exercise 9. — Make one sentence of each pair of sentences by using conjv/nctions selected from the foregoing list: Example. — The boy robbed the nest. He was punished for his cruelty. The boy robbed the nest and was punished for his cruelty. THE PABT8 OF 8PEE0K 27 1. His daughter was the light of his eyes. His daughter was the joy of his souL 2. The messenger mounted the stairs quickly. The stairs were very steep. 8. Boses love the sunshine. They do not love the shada 4. Time waits for no man. Tide waits for no man. 5. The teacher reproved the pupiL The pupil failed in recitation. 6. She talks more than she thinks. She talks but httle. 7. You will take cold. You are not properly clothed. 8. Our guest will depart. The storm is still raging. 9. I could not weep. I could not laugh. 10. He paid me promptly. I trusted him again. QUESTIONS. 'Wherehi do the words classed as prepositions and the words dlassed as oonjunctions, agree? Wherein do they differ? What is the inrinciiwd ofQce of conjunctions? What else do they do? Mention some conjunctions that serve to connect words. Some that occur in palra. Hake sentences con- taining wUher-fUjr^ eUhof^-or^ loth—anA. THB INTEJBJEOnOli'. 41. The seven classes of words thus far ex- plained have each a particular office or function in the sentence. We are able to determine the part of speech to which any particular word in a sentence 28 E2SrGLI8H ORAMMAE. belongs only by learning how it steuids related to other words in the sentence. There is, however, a class of words called the in- terjection, or exclamation, that has no grammatical relation to other words in the sentence where it occurs. Interjections do not aid in the expression of thought, but indicate emotion or feeling, and serve no other purpose than to show by what kind and degree of feeling our thought is accompanied. AUis! My hoy is dead. Humxh! We have a holiday. Oh I Excuse my a/wkwa/rdneas. The words alas, hurrah, and oh, in the preceding sentences, are called interjections, — a name that means something thrown in among other things. The name impUes that the interjection is not necessary to the grammatical completeness of a sentence. Words commonly used as verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs, etc., are sometimes employed as interjec- tions. Good! That bdU was wed ca/ugTU, Hush! You will sca/re the hMls. *^ipn What do you mea/n by "if**f Well! Have you sdl/ved the exa/mple at last? Now ! Are you not asha/med of you/rselff 43. Definttion. — ^An interjection is a word express- ing strong feeling, and not related to other words in the sentence. THE PABT8 OF SPEECH. 39 BxBROiSE IQ.—From the following list select smtdble interjections to fill the blanks : OhI Oome! Weill Heyl Nonsense! Ahl g top 1 Hurrah 1 There 1 Dear mel Lo! Alas 1 Hark 1 Shame 1 Good-bye 1 Sol Help 1 Hem I Indeed I Ha, hal Fiel Fire 1 Hist 1 Begone 1 Farewell 1 Howl Lookl Hush! Look outl Ah mel Whyl Bang I Behold 1 Beware 1 dearl Seel Hallo 1 Huzza 1 Welcome 1 Heigh-ho I 1. 1 I am surprised to hear it. 2. 1 Here comes the train. 3. I shall not see you again. ! 4. 1 You can not make me believe that. 5. 1 He is deceiving you. 6. 1 It was a very fimny sight. 7. 1 Is anybody awake within ? 8. 1 cried Samoset to the white men. 9. 1 ! cried the traveler, as the robbers fell upon him. 10. 1 I knew I could do it. 11. ! Did you hear that strange sound? 12. 1 I do not understand you. « 13. 1 The clouds are breaking away. 14. The maiden wrung her hands and cried, — -1 and — 1 15. 1 Let me never see you again. 16. 1 1 A victory 1 17. 1 My blood runs cold ! 18. The captain said 1 and ! went the guns. 19. 1 that thou shouldat die. 20. 1 Do not awake the child. ' 1 y Note.— It is well to avoid the use of interjections as much as possible, both in speaking and in writing, particulaiiy those used to express the feeling of contempt or dislike; such as, fudge! loaht psha/w! 'bah! / 90 ENOLian OBAMMAE. QUESTIONS. How do you detenniiie the part of speech to which any partionlar word in a sentence belongs? Of the eight parts of speech, how many are used for the expression of thought? How many solely for the expression of feeling? What is it called? How may a verb be used as an interjection? A noun? An adjeotlTe? An adverb? G^ive an instance of each. Define CHAPTER III. ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE. SUBJECT AND FBUDICATIL 43. We have seen that a sentence consists of two principal parts: 1. The subject, — ^the word or words denoting that about which something is said. 2. The predicate, — expressing what is said of the thing denoted by the subject. Sometimes the subject consists of a noun only, as Time flies; sometimes of a pronoun, as JETe walks, She rides ; sometimes, of a noun or pronoun with one or more adjective modifiers, as. The swift boat scuds before the breeze, Friendless, homeless, hopeless, they wcmdered fnym cUy tc city. Without its modifiers, the noun or pronoun that denotes that of which something is said is called the subject noun, or the subject pronoun, and the verb in the predicate is called the predicate verb. ' ELEMENTS OF THE 8ENTEN0S. 31 44, The subject often consists of two or more words equivalent in meaning to a noun ; as. To err is Tvu/mcm. Walking in the hot sun is tuea/ry work. In these sentences, to err, and walking in the hot SfiJm, are called phrases; and because they perform the offices of nouns, they are called nowa phrases. 46. Sometimes the subject of a sentence is an ex- pression containing itself a subject and a predicate ; as. Why he came to see us^ soon "beca/me evident. An expression used in this way, as the subject of a sentence, is called a noun clause. That he committed the crime, was dea/rly shown at the Phrases and clauses serve for other purposes be- side those mentioned above, as will be shown here- after. Exercise 11. — In the following sentences, point out the subject and the predicate, and tell whether the subject is a nou/n, a pronoun, a phrase, or a clause : 1. Long among them waited a maiden. 2. I stood on the bridge at midnight 3. Written their history stands on tablets of stone. 4. To make others happy should be our chief delight. 5. That the earth is round has been proven. 6. By the pale moonlight is the time to view fair Melrose. 7. Listening to sweet music brings rest to the weary mind. 8. Whatever hath been written shall remain. 9. Charity suffereth long and is kind, is the law of love. 10. To love poetry is the mark of a refined mind. 82 EN0LI8H GRAMMAR. THB COMPLEMBNT OF A VXBB. 46. If we should construct a variety of sentences by joining subjects to suitable verbs, it would soon appear that verbs differ in two important respects. We should find that, 47. 1. Some verbs are capable of forming the predicate of a sentence without the aid of any other word. Such are called verbs of complete predication. ( runs. C sings. The boy < walks. The bird < flies. i thinks. i eats. 48. 2. Some verbs are incapable of forming a complete predicate without the aid of one or more additional words. Such are called verbs of incom- plete predication. That which is added to the verb to fill out its meaning is called its complement,— a word meaning that which fills or completes. [ caught the fox. (is a gentleman. The dog I hit the boy. The. man \ seems sick. { scared the burglar. { looks tired. Verbs of incomplete predication are of two kinds. 49. 1. Verbs whose complement is either an ad- jective modifying the subject, or a noun or pronoun denoting the same person or thing as the subject. We are tired. They were late. I feel bad. It toa^ J. Maud was a teacher. He became President. ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE. 38 An adjective so used is called the predicate ad- jective. The noun or pronoun that completes the predicate in the way explained above is called the predicate noun or predicate ptonoun. 60. 2. Verbs whose complement is a noun or a pronoun denoting that which receives the action ex- pressed by the verb. Se sawed wood. We caught fish. The swn lights the earth. The storm wrecked a steamer. We assisted him, 61. A noun or pronoun used in this manner is called the object of the verb. The noun or pronoun taken without any modifiers is called the object noun or the object pronoun. 62. The complement of a verb may be a phrase or a clause. He is tvith his sister. The teacher said that the earth is round. They explamed how the accident happened. Exercise 12. — In the following sentences, point out 1. The subject and predicate, 2. The predicate nouns and predicate adjectives. S. All objects of verbs- and of prepositions, . 4. All clauses used as subject or as object, 1. 1 hear the shouts ot the school-boys. 2. The old orchard gave forth the first faint scent of the apple-blooms. 3. A bobolink and a robin sang a sweet duet. 4. Fame is the fragrance of heroic deeds. \'' 84 BNGLIBH BRA MM A It. 6. The soldier lay lifeless but beautiful. 6. We heard the bleating of the flock, And the twitter of birds among the trees. 7. Men will judge us by the company we keep. 8. The laws of Nature are just, but pitiless. 9. God sent His singers upon earth With songs of sadness and of mirth. 10. Washington is the Father of his Country. 11. King Alfred was a sublime character. 12. I shot an arrow into the air. 13. The day is cold and dark and dreary. 14. Windsor Castle is the residence of Queen Victoria. 15. Hiawatha learned the names and the secrets of many birds. 16. Straws show which way the wind blows. 17. We believed that the ring was stolen. 18. I remember how my childhood fleeted by. 19. The sailor thought he saw a light. 20. History teaches that the Civil War was a critical event in the existence of this nation. QUESTIONS. What is a sentence r What are the two prlnoii»l parts of a sentence f What part of speech must the i^redicate contain? Why? What parts of speech ^may the principal word in the subject be? Make a sentence with a noun as the subject. With a pronoun as the subject. What collections of words may take the place of a noun or a pronoun in the subject? Give an example of a noun phrase. Of a noun clause. What is the quality that aU verbs have in common ? What are the two respects in which verbs differ? What is the meaning of the word complement f What are the two kinds of complements of verbs? What are the marks by which you may distin- guish them? What relation does a predicate noun, pronoun, or adjective, bear to the subject noun or pronoun? What relation does the object noun or pronoun bear to the iiredicate verb? What else may constitate the complement of a verb besides a noon or l^ronoun? ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE. 35 ADJEOnVE MODtPIEBS. 63. We have seen that an adjective joined to a noun, to denote more exactly what the noun names, is called a modifier. . It has been explained also that precisely the same work done in a sentence by an adjective may be done by two or more words taken together and used as the equivalent of an adjective. Honest 'boys, hoys of honesty , boys that are honest* Bltie-eyed girl, girl with blue eyes, girl who has blue eyeso The expressions in full-faced type are all adjective modifiers. Adjective modifiers axe, therefore, of three kinds with respect to form. 64. 1. A word. Hed roses, pine trees, three days, sUk hat, large apples, 65. 2. A phrase. Any modifier that consists of several words is called a phrase modifier^ provided it contains no word that asserts. The most important phrase modifiers are those that begin with a prepo- sition and end with a noun or a pronoun. To dis- tinguish them from phrases of other kinds of which we shall learn hereafter, they are called prepositional phrases. If used to modify the meaning of a noun or a pronoun, they are prepositional adjective phrases. The girl with golden hair is my sister. She wore a dress of many colors. 36 BNGLI8E GRAMMAR. The boy with his father* in the boat» on the horse* by the road, under the bridge. The gropes at the fnarkei* for him* along the fence, upon the vine, against the waU. 56. 3. A clause. I know a gM wlio has blue eyes. ■ Here the noun girl is modified by' who has blve eyes. This modifier contains the predicate verb has, and in this respect differs from the phrase, which contains no asserting word. A modifier in this form is called a clause. The house that Jack budU stands in a region where rain never foMs. The nouns Tiouse and region are modified by the adjective clauses that Jack bvnit, and where rai/a i. never falls, respectively. Exercise 13. — Point out all the adjective modi- fierSj and tell what words they modify. Tell also which are phrases; and which, clauses. 1. A gentleman of great learning addressed the pupils of the first class. 2. The travelers visited the house in which Shakesi)eare lived. 3. Children that live in the country welcome the birds of early spring. 4. Pennsylvania contains many varieties of forest trees. 5. The book that I loaned you has not been returned. 6 The lady who visited us wore diamonds of remarkable brilllaace. ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE, 37 7. The people that come late must take the back seats. 8. The man from whom we buy provisions is a dealer in fine goods. 9. The gardener plucked large bunches of luscious purple grapes. 10. The children of the slaves sang the songs of David. 11. He that would thrive must see the white sparrow. 12. I remember the rock where the cataract fell. 13. Cromwell defeated the army of the king. 14. The sweetest music that a mother hears is the prattle of her little children. 15. The moon, that once was round and full, Is now a silver boat. 16. The roses that adorned the garden are now withered and dead. 17. Bright flowers deck the meadow^ where the. cattle graze. 18. I heard from the boughs the sweet notes of a nightin- gale. 19. The factory where the brothers worked was burned. 20. I know a bank whereon the wild thyme blows. ADVEBBIAIj modifiebs. SH. If a word is used to modify the meaning of a verhy an adjective, or an adverb, we know the word to be an adverb, A phrase used for the same pur- pose becomes an adverbial phrase, and a clause so used becomes an adverbial clause. C into the yard. The hoy tvcUked < over the hill. ( through the woods. The foregoing phrases modify the verb walked, and are, therefore, adverbial phrases. )'\ 38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ( €M the night came* We left the city < wfien we had finished our work. ( before the ship sailed. The verb left is modified by the clauses on the right, which are, in consequence, adverbial clauses. A phrase or a clause may itself be modified by an adverb. NeaHy across the ocean. Exactly where Columbtis landed* Just before the battle. 68. Definition. — A phrase is a group of words nc«t containing a subject and predicate, which .performs the office of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb in a sentence. 69. Definition. — ^A clause is a group of words con- taining a subject and predicate, which performs the office of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb, in a sentence. Exercise 14. — Tell which modifiers are adverbs^ which are adverbial phrases, and which are adver^ bial clauses. Tell also what each modifies. 1. I will come when I have finished my lesson. 2. Smooth is the water where the brook is deep. 3. He had a fever when he was in Spain. 4. Some must watch while some must sleep. 5. We stood upon the ragged rocks When the long day was nearly done. 6. When the shadows of evening fall, the sunbeams fly away. 7. Par above the organ's swell rang out a childish voice. 8. The little birds chirped as they opened their drowsy eyee» CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 39 9. The swan sings before it dies. 10. The sun rises in the east and sets in the west. 11. My heart leai)s up when I behold A rainbow in the sky. 12. Make hay while the sun shines. 13. An honest man speaks as he thinks. 14. We walked along the path toward the station. 15. With a quick motion, the deer lifted his head a little, and turned his ear to the south. QU ESTION S. What is the office of a word used as a modifier f What part of speech is used as a modifier of a noun or pronoun ? What collections of words may take the place of an adjectiye ? Make a sentence containing an adjective phrase. An adjective clause. What i)art of speech is used as a modifier of a verb, an adjective, or an adverb? Give examples. What collections of words may be used to perform the office of an adverb f Of what i>arts of speech may a phrase i)erform the offices? What is it called in each instance? Of what parts of speech may a clause i)erform the offices? What is it called in each instance? Enumerate and Illustrate the various words and collections of words that may form the subject of a sentence. The complement of a verb. Define phraae. Define dauae. CHAPTER IV. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES- ANAIiTSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 60. There are two methods by which one might make himself acquainted with any thing made up of related parts; as, for example, a watch. He might take the watch apart, piece by piece, and while doing so, study the details of its structure and 40 ENGLISH ORAMMAB. the relation of its parts one to another. An operation like this, which begins with the whole and descends to the parts that compose the whole, is called analysis. The word means a taking apart or separating. Or he might begin with the parts, and, after some experiment and study, get an excellent knowledge of the watch by putting its parts properly together. An operation of this kind is called synthesis, which means a putting together. These two methods are the reverse of each other, and both are applicable to the study of the sentence. Both enable us to understand how words are related to one another and to the whole sentence. 61. DEFiNmoN. — Analysis in grammar is the pro- cess of separating a sentence into parts, according to their use. 63. Definption. — Synthesis in grammar is the pro- cess of constructing sentences whose parts are given, their use being known or stated. aU ESTI ONS. How many ways are there of studying any thing made up of parte? If you separated a chair into its parts, discovering how one part was related to another and to the whole, what would this method *of study be called? If you were given the parts of a chair, and were required to put them together so as to form a complete piece of furniture, what might this opera- tion be called? Tell what you would have to do to become acquainted, by analysis, with the construction of a violin. By synthesis. Invent an illustration of analysis. Of synthesis. What is the object of both analysis and synthesis in grammar? Define analyHs. Define synthetU, OLASaiFICATlON OF aRNTENC«& 41 8YKTHESI8 OF SENTBNOBB. 63. We have already seen that, when considered with respect to the use that is made of them, sen- tences are of three kinds : declarative, when used to make a statement; interrogative, when used to ask a question ; imperative, when used to express a com- mand or entreaty. 64. But sentences may be classified with reference to their structure ; that is, by considering their parts or elements. Sentences have great variety of structure, but they may all be divided into three great classes : the simple sentence, the complex sentence, and the compound sentence. L The Simple Sentence. 66. The simplest form a sentence can have is that in which a subject noun or pronoun is joined to a suitable verb, or to a verb and its object, so as to form a statement, a question, or a command. Bi/rda fly* I have read the hook. The dog harks. Ma/ry ate the apple. He walks. The sun lights the earth, 66. Such sentences may be lengthened by the addition of modifiers / but so long as these modifiers are words or phrases, and not clauses^ the sentences are still simple sentences. Phick the ripe, yellow apples from the old tree. Did the wolf in the fable eat the gentle little lamb f y 42 EN0LI8H QRAMMAR. Exercise 15. — As in the model, lengthen the foU loming sentences by properly adding to them the given modifiers : Sentence, Word Mod\fien, throve Mod\/Un- ( mcmy ( a/mong the stafsly trees 1. Birds fly < wonderful I in South America { every-where { along the Amazon Biver Along the Ar,%azon Biver, in South America, m^ny wonderful birds fly every-where a/mong the stately trees. ^ „, , , S the, often \ of the forest 2. Flowers bloom ] ; . < : ., •; ,. r sweetest i in the umeh loneliest nooks 3. Oirl sat ^ 'very ^ silent [in a pretty crimson chair the I near the window ume J A rru'ij » ^ ^ ) I. / ^^^ ^^ <^^tear ice 4. ChMd/ren skated < happy > ^, I 'x^ \ ^^«<*^ the viUage I stmftly ) ^^ - (ontho steel rurmers 5. Sled shot \ __„ \ down the hdU new { with great speed frantic 6. Pa/r&nts tra^cked footsteps < *:, the smaM of the lost chMd " across an open field into the forest 7. General must be - a trusty fa/ithful and dutiful of a/n army (a 1 _ ,, ., ^ Utile with doumcast eyes 8. afa«f gaveflowersi ^ ^ ^^^^ l hea/utiful J OLA88IFI0ATI0N OF aENTENOBS. 43 0. Sparrow makes home 1 'the smaZ^ . brown \m the trees English readily Us of owr streets (the snouyftUed 1 10. Nest swings < j^j/ Y upon the leafless tree , drearily J 67. By means, of conjunctions, two or more simple sentences may often be contracted, or shortened, into one simple sentence that has, 1. A compound subject. In making such contrac- tions, changes in the forms of some of the words are often necessary. Leah went to the sea-side, Leah's mother went to the seorside Leah a/nd her mother went to the seaside. 2. A compound object. TTie chUd gathered sheUs aHong the seorshore, ) _ The child gathered pebbles dUmg the seashore. ) "" The child gathered slieUs and pebbles along the seorshore, 8. A compound predicate. The sum, Ughts the earth ) ^ The su/n wa/rms the earth, ) " The su/n Ughts and warms the earth* The children are yowng, ) _ The chdldren are ha/ppy, \ " The children are young o/nd happy. U ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 4. Two or more of the foregoing elements com- pound. Mary gathered violets. Mary gathered buttercups, Mary pressed violets. Mary pressed buttercups. LUy gathered violets. Lily gathered buttercups. LUy pressed violets. Lily pressed buttercups. Mary a/nd LUy gathered a/nd pressed violets and buttercups, 6. Any other compound elements. Th>e teacher spoke firmly. ) __ The teacher spoke pleasantly. S "~ The teacher spoke firmly but pleasantly, Henry was respectful to his teacher. ) __ Henry uxis obedient to his parents, f "" Henry vxts respectful to his teacher and obedient to his parents A simple sentence that is formed by the synthesis of two or more simple sentences contains such con- junctions as and, but, as well as, either — or, neither — nor, both — and, etc. Night is pleasant, ds weU as day. Life is short hut very precious. Both his money and his good name are lost. Neither his father nor his m^other was living. 68. Definition. — A simple sentence is a sentence containing one subject and one predicate, either of which may be compound. Note. — Great care should be taken that, when a sentence is written, the proper marks of punctuation are inserted. For the rules governing punctuation, see pages 270-78. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 45 Exercise 16. — Gontract each set of sentences into one simple sentence : 1. Fine roses are found in Japan. Fine roses are found in China. Many beautiful lilies are found in Japan. Many beautiful lilies are found in China. 2. The high wind blew down trees. The high wind carried away fences. The high wind did much damage to property. 3. No sound was heard during the long night. The barking of the dogs was heard during the long night 4. The city of Vancouver has only six thousand inhabitants. The city of Vancouver has much traffic. The city of Vancouver has much wealth. 6. The buttercup comes early in the spring. The buttercup stays late in the fall. The daisy comes early in the spring. The daisy stays late in the fall. 6. He spoke of the grass. He spoke of the flowers. He spoke of the trees. He spoke of the singing birds. He spoke of the himiming bees. 7. John is a citizen of New York State. I 6un a citizen of New York State. 8. I care not much for gold. I care not much for land. 9. Her cheek was glowing fresh. Her cheek was glowing fair. ^er cheek was glowing with the breath of morr Her cheek was glowing with the soft sea air. 10. Pride goeth forth on horseback, grand and gay. Pride cometh back on foot. Pride begs its way. 46 ENGLISH OR A MAI AR. QU ESTIONS. Define ientenee. What are the two plans npon which classifications of sentenced are made? How are sentences classified according to the use that is made of them f Define each kind or class. ^Hiat is meant by saying that sentences are classified according to structure? How are they so classified? What is the simplest form of a sentence? How may such sentences be lengthened? What part of speech is used in contracting two or more simple sen- tences into one? Give an example of a sentence with a compound subject. With a com- pound object. With a compoand predicate. With both subject and predi- cate compound. With a compound predicate complement. n. The Complex Sentence. 69. We have seen that a clause may be used as a modifier. 1. A clause may, like an adjective, modify the meaning of a noun or a pronoun. Tfiis is the hcmse that my father buUt We visited the city where Columbus was born* Here t?iat my father built modifies the noun house, and where Columbus was born modifies the noun city. The words that and where are used to connect the clauses between which they stand. 2. A clause may perform the office of an adverb. TJie birds retwmed tvhen spring cams. The concert had hegwn before tve arrivedt 70. Of the two connected clauses in each of the foregoing sentences, one has a more important rank CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 47 than the other. Thus, in the sentence, The birds retur-ned when spring Carrie^ the clause when spring came is said to be dependent or subordinate, because it is a mere modifier of the verb retv/rned. The birds returned is called the leading or principal clause. 71. A sentence that contains one principal clause and one or more dependent or subordinate clauses is a complex sentence. 73. Besides its use as a modifier, the subordinate clause may be used like a noun in the complex sentence. 1. As the subject of the principal clause. What he said amused the cMldren. That he was guilty seemed almost certain, 2. As the object of the verb in the principal clause. Can you explain what you mean? I ca/n not say when I shaU return^ 8. As the object of a preposition. My cov/rse wiH he determmed by what he says. 73. Definition.— A complex sentence is a sentence that contains one principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. 74. The principal connectives that join an adjec- tive clause to a noun or a pronoun, are the pronouns 48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. whOf whose^ whom, which^ that, and the atdverbs where and when. The principal connectives that join an adverbial clause to a verb or an adjective are the adverbs where, when, while. The adverbs mentioned above are often called conr- jv/active adverbs, because they not only modify the verbs in the clauses they introduce, but also connect these clauses with some word in the principal clause. Exercise 17. — By means of suitable connectives form a complex sentence out of each set of simple sentences, making necessary contractions: ^ j Our children always retire for the night. ( The clock strikes nine. p j The snow remains unmelted longest. ( The drifts are deepest. !The teacher detained her pupils. They had failed in their lessons. They had been disorderly. C We sat on the shore at the seanside. 4. •< The sun sank below the hills. ( The stars began to shine brightly. - (A boy became Lord Mayor of London. ( The boy was called Dick Whittington. !The farmer carefully locked the stable-door. His horse had already been stolen. He valued the horse very highly. ( Harry's mother gave him a beautiful pony. 7. < Harry was ten years old. I The Tionv came from Tatar. ( The x>ony came from Texas. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 40 I The whale is not really a fish. It is eagerly hunted in the Arctic OceaxL Its body yields oil and whalebone. g j The waters of the Gulf Stream grow cooler. ( The Gulf Stream flows northward. ( Tennyson lives on the Isle of Wight. 10. \ He wrote the beautiful "Idyls of the King." ( IJe wrote them many years ago. [ We see the lightning. 11. •< We hear the thunder. ( We may expect rain. jg ( The fleeing troops of Sheridan rallied at Winchester. I He had ridden twenty miles to join them. ( Whittier saw many things in nature. 13. \ Other people could not see them. ( He was a poet. C George Washington was the first President of the 14. I United States. ( He was inaugurated April 30, 1789. 15. {Benjamin Franklin discovered electricity. Benjamin Franklin invented the lightning-rod. Benjamin Franklin was a statesman. Benjamin Franklin was a patriot. ^ " QU ESTIONS. What are the three offices which a clause may perform in a sentence? When is one sentence said to be subordinate to another, or dei)endent on it? Give an illustration of a clause used as an adjective. As an adverb. As a noun : when it is the subject of a sentence ; when it is the object of a verb ; when it is the object of a preposition. Point out the principal clause, the subordinate clause, and the con- nective, in each of the illustrative sentences in i>aragraph 72. Define complex sentence. Point out the princii)al clause, the subordinate clause, and the connective in each sentence you make in Exercise 17, and tell whether the subordinate olaose is a noun, an adjective, or an adverbial clause. • / 50 ENQLISH GRAMMAR. nx The Compound Sentence. 75. Two simple sentences may be united so that one of them is of higher rank or importance than the other. This, as we have seen, forms a complex sen- tence. 76. Again, two or more principal clauses, with or without subordinate clauses, may be found in a sen- tence. Such a sentence is called a compound sentence. Art is long and time is fleeting. The Sim had set, bid the moon was sMnmg hrigMly, Either he Tmnself com/mitted the crime, or he knows who the culprits are. 77. A compound sentence must have at least two principal or independent clauses. Either or all of these clauses may have dependent clauses as modi- fiers, or as objects of verbs or prepositions. When the tide twms the anchor tvill be raised a/nd the vessel win take its departure. Whittier lives at Amesbuf*]/, near the beautiful MerH" mac that he loved in his youth, and he will probably remain there untU he dies, 78. Definition.— A compound sentence is a sen- tence containing two or more principal or independ- ent clauses. Exercise 1 8. — Form compownd sentences of the fol- lowing sets of simple sentences, and tell which clauses are principal, and which subordinate. I The rain descended. The floods came. The winds blew. 2. < 0LA88IFI0ATI0N OF SENTENOBS, 51 ''The frost killed the leaves. The rain loosened their hold upon the boughs. They floated silently to the earth. The snow covered them with its white mantle. was the month of November. The sun shone warm and bright. - ( His fevered brow grew cool again. ( He breathed a blessing on the rain. *• IS (Tl I The door was softly opened. A little girl peeped in. She quickly ran away again. ^ { The night grows dark. ( Thick drops patter on the pane. ( The men could not go sailing. ( A storm had arisen. J A soft answer tumeth away wrath. '■{ Grievous words stir up anger. ( Master books. ' ( Do not let books master you. j The cork-tree grows to a height of forty feet. ( Its trunk is from two to three feet in diameter. j There was a strange look in his eyes. I He was very merry. j Conceit may puff a man up. ( It will never prop him up. 3' QUESTION S. Wherein do a complex sentence and a compound sentence agree? Wherein do they differ? What is the smallest nmnl)er of principal olanses you may have in a oomponnd sentence ? May you have a subordinate clause in a compound sentence? Under what coaditi r> 54 ENQLIBH GBAMMAB. 10. Paris is built on both sides of the Seine, and has many bridges. 11. Fierce winds often sweep over the desert and fill the air with sand. 12. The stcu:^ and the moon watched over the lost babes. 13. A white dove fluttered gently down to the little maid. 14. Cool ferns and soft mosses grow abundantly in the ravine. 15. The thirsty horses and cattle drank freely of the pure water. 16. A pretty child swung slowly in a hammock and sang a little song. 17. Madge arose, rubbed the frosted pane, and stared into the starry night. 18. The lost dog wandered about the streets and watched for its master. 19. A soldier's widow and her only child lived in a little hut near the village. 20. We heard the moaning of the wind and the patter of the rain. 21. The deer shrink northward from the settler's fire. 22. There I lingered all October through In that sweet atmosphere of hazy blue. ANAIiYBIB OF THE OOMFIiIDC SENTIINOB. 80* A Jme momj/ment marked the spot where he was bv/ried. Subject. Predicate. f 1 I 1 8. N. monument P. V. marked O. N. gpot lA *— — — — ^ j I the I flne * wbeije S. Pr. he P. V. iwaa burled Explanation. — ^It is a declarative sentence, because it ex- presses a statement. It is a complex sentence, because it contains a pnncipcd and a subordinate clause. 0LA8BIFI0ATJ0N OF BENTBIfOBa. 55 The principal clause is A fine mormment marked the spot. The stibardinate clause is where he woe buried; the can^ necH/ve is wJiere, The stibject of the sentence is A fine mormment. The predicate of the sentence is m,a/r1ced the spot where lie was buried. The svbject noun is morvument; its modifiers axe the arti- cle a and the adjective fine. The predicate verb is morAfed. The object noun is spo^; its fnodifiers are ^, and the adjective clause, where lie was buried, of which he is the stibject pronoun, and toas buried is the predicate verb. Note. — ^The higher rank of the principal clause is indicated by being printed in full-face type on heavy lines. The de- X)endent clause is joined by a dotted line to the word it modifies. TJie radn that begem so gently soon poured in torrents. Subject. 1 r Predicate. 8. N. rain P. V. poured fl.P. that The soon in torrents P. V. began I gently IBO The Thouse where Jack and Jill Uoed, stood at the foot of a steep hm. r Subject 1 r 8. N. house Predicate. p. V. stood at foot I the of hill 1 56 EN0LI8H QBAMMAB. We ate and dAramk wntU ow htmger and ihirst were entirely gone. Subject. Predicate. 1 r P. V. ate 8.Pr. We S. N. hunger -y^ajid uAtu' P. T. drank S. N. thirst our P. V. were gone {entirely An observant cou/ntry ioy always l^rwws where the robin bmlds her nest, and where the squirrel has his home. Subject 1 r Predicate. S. N. boy P. T. knows O. cl. An observant countiy I always I where |her 8. N. robin P.V.builds O.K.ne8t |tho a6d jS.N.8quirrel P.V.has O.N.home I the [where [his I Exercise 20. — In accordance with the preceding models, analyze the following complex sentences^ and explain the analysis: m 1. He who cries about spilled milk mourns unwisely. 2. China has many high mountains whose tops are almost always covered with snow. 3. The ermine lives wherever it can find a snug hiding- place. 4. I dozed and dreamed until the dawn flu3hed through the waning moonlight, OLASSmOATlON OF SBNTENOEa. 57 b^ The children sat hy the window t)hat opened upon the veranda. 6. The child that was most loved died soonest. 7. I stood on the bridge at midnight. As the clocks were striking the hour. 8. Jack and Jill lived in a little house that stood at the foot of the hill. 9. Character carries with it an influence that commands the confidence and respect of mankind. 10. The young moon hung in the purple west. When the sun had gone to rest. 11. I admire a boy who has manliness and courage. 12. We stood upon the ragged rocks. When the long day was nearly done. 13. The bark that is vainly tossed by the tempest may founder in the calm. 14. Winter dies when the violets awake. 15. He who laughs at crooked men should walk very straight. 16. New knowledge that we discover for ourselves, always gives pleasure. 17. Boses were blooming in the gardens of the old Southern houses that stood along the bay. 18. The swimmer bravely breasted the waves, which every moment threatened his destruction. ANAIiTSIB OF THE OOMFOUND SENTENCE. 81* The commanders arrcmged thew* msn, cmd the battle began irmnediately, Subject Predicate. I 1 I 1 S. N. commanderfl P. V. arranged O. N. men TlH, a^d P^ ^Sj^NJ^attl^^^^^ I P. V. began Ithe ■■-^""-"^-» jtaimediateljr "^"* n •* ;^ 58 BN&LI8H GRAMMAR. In (he spring a fuM&r crimson comes upon the robin's breast; In the spring the wcmton lapwvng gets himself (mother orest. Subject. Preffloate. S. N. crimson P. T. oomes fuller S upon breast (aAd) . Ithe I I robin's S. N. lap'wtng ! P. V. gets O. y. crest Ithe I (for) himself I another wanton |ln spring Ithe Exercise 21. — Study the model given above, and analyze the following compound sentences : 1. The child nestled in the comer, and the wind blew the rain away from her. 2. The cattle are quietly feeding in the pastures, and the people are resting in their pleasant homes. 3. The mountain slopes of Switzerland are covered with vineyards, and pleasant villages fill the valleys. 4. Men may come and men may go, But I go on forever. 5. I love my wife, I love my friend, I love my children three. 6. Now the lost has found a home. And a lone hearth shall brighter bum. 7. We enjoyed our walk, although the rain fell fast. 8. The wind was blowing over the mpors, But the sun shone bright upon the heather. 9. The storm had cleared the air, and a heavenly calm succeeded. 10. A torn jacket is soon mended; but hard words bruise the heart of a child. PART II. CHAPTER I. THE DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR. 82. Grammar tells us how words are formed, how they are classified, how they are joined to form sen- tences, how sentences are classified, and the relations that both words and sentences bear one to another, (16.) 83. Hence, grammar has to do, 1. With words separately considered ; that is, not united to express thought. 2. With words joined in sentences. 84. A spoken word is a sound, or a combination of sounds, having a meaning. 85. When a word is written or printed, certain characters called letters are used to represent the sounds of the spoken word. 86. Definition. — Orthography is that part of gram- mar which treats of the correct representation by letters of the sounds that make up a word. The word orthography is derived from two Greek words, meaning rigJU or Prue, and tvritmg. It means, therefore, correct wrUvng, C69) 60 ENOLian QBAMMAB. 87. In the study of grammar, words are first classified according to the way in which they are used in sentences. This has led to the division of all the words in our language into eight classes, called parts of speech. It will be found, however, that nearly all of these classes or parts of speech may be further subdivided. This process of arrang- ing the words of a language in classes is called classification. 88. Again, if you will look carefully at a sentence, such as, Charles rode on his father^ a horsCj you will notice that three of the words, rode, his, and father^s, are modifications of other words, and that each modi- fication is made in order to express a variation of meaning. Bode is a modification of ride, to indicate thq^t the event took place in past time. His is a modified form of he, and 's is added to father, in both cases to show possession. All such changes are called inflections. 89. Definition. —Inflection is any change in the form of a word to indicate variation in meaning or use. 90. Inflections may be made in four ways: 1. By an internal change in the word; as, ride, rode; see, saw; mem, men, 2. By adding a letter or a syllable ; as, learn, lea/ms, lea/med; book, hodk^a, books; straight, stradghter, stradghtest, 3. By the use of auxiliary or helping words; as, lecMm, will lea/m, have learned, had lea/med; ha/ppy, more happy, most happy. 4. By the use of a word quite different in spelling and sound; as, be, am, is, W€is; good, better, best. THE DrrisiONa of grammar. ei 91* That form of a word to which inflections are added is called the stem» Thus lea/m is the stem to which 8 and ed are added to form lea/ms and learned. 93. The inflections of nouns and pronouns are called declensions; of adjectives and adverbs^ com- parisons; of verbs, conjugations. Prepositions, con- junctions, and interjections are not inflected. 93. Then again, in studying words, we may con- sider not only the classes into which they are divide^, and the changes they undergo in order to express our meaning, but also their growth and structure. . 94. Some words axe prime ; that is, they can not be traced back to any simpler words in the language ; as, man, hush, tree. Others are compound; that is, are composed of two or more simple words; as, rose-bush, apple-tree. Others are derivative; that is, are built up by adding pre- fixes (syllables placed before) or suffixes (endings) to simple words ; as, befriend and friendship ^ from fri&nd. 95. Word-formation deals with the study of the growth and structure of words. Summing up, we may say that words are studied as to their classification^ as to their inflection^ and as to their f ormoM oxi.. These are the main divisions of that part of grammar known as Etymology. j' 96. DEFiNrriON. — Etymology is that part of gram- mar which treats of the classification, inflection, and formation of words. The word etymology comes from two Greek words, meaning ^^ t> 62 ENGLISH GBAMMAB. true and word. It me€uis, therefore, the aoienoe of the true meanmg of words, 97. But grammar, as we learned in § 82, treats not only of individual words, but also of the joining of words in sentences. 98. Definition. — Syntax is that part of grammar which treats of the way in which words are joined in sentences. The word ayrytaac is derived from two Greek words, meaning together and arrcmgement. It signifies, therefore, proper ar- ra/ngement. 99. Syntax lays down the rules that govern the formation of all sentences, whether in prose or in verse. 100. In addition, however, to the rules of syntax, there are special rules for the arrangement of words in the musically measured sentences used in poetry. 101. Definition. — Prosody is that part of gram- mar which treats of the rules that govern verse. The word prosody comes from a Greek word, meaning ha/r- morvious. It properly means the measurement of verse. Exercise 22. — Complete the following synopsis: rOf words ■< Grammar Of sentences OBTHOOBAPHT. 63 QUESTIONS. What are the two principal subjects of which grammar treats! Into ^hat may a spoken'word be analyzed P What is meant by analysis? How is an elementary sound represented? Define orthography. What is the principle on which words are classified? What are the classes called? How many are there ? Name them. If you change the form of a word in order to express the meaning you desire to convey, what is the change called? Define inflection. State four ways in which inflections are made, and give an example of each. What are the inflections of a noun or a pronoun called? Of a verb? Of an adjective? Of an adverb? How are words classified according to structure ? What is the difference between a simple word and a comiwund word ? Between a simple word and a derivative word ? Between a compound word and a derivative word? What are the three parts of etymology? Define etymology. Define syntax. Define prosody. CHAPTER II. ORTHOGRAPHY. 102. DEFiisriTioisr. — Orthography is that part of grammar which treats of the correct representation by letters of the sourxds that make up a word. 103. We must distinguish between spoken sounds and the names of the letters or characters used to represent these sounds in writing or printing. Authorities differ as to the exact number of sounds used in pronouncing the words of the English language, but most of them agree In placing the number at not less than forty-three. 104. An alphabet of a language is composed of all its letters arranged in order. 64 EN0LI8H GRAMMAR. The word alphabet is derived from alpha and beta, the names of the first two letters of the Greek alphabet. The earliest written characters were, like the Egyptian hieroglyphics, pictures of objects, and from these our letter forms are derived. 105. The letters of the English alphabet are twenty-six in number, as follows : Roman : Aa, Bb, Cc, Dd, Ee, Ff, Qg, Hh, E, Jj, Kk, LI, Mm, Nn, Oo, Pp, Qq, Rr, Ss, Tt, Uu, Vv, Ww, Xx, Yy, Zz. Script : c^, Sre; like ^ in there. ft, ItaMa/n, as in arm, ft, as in ask, Q, broad, as in dU; like 6 in fork, aw in pawn, au in fa/tm, 6, long, as in me ; like I in police. £, short, as in met; like ai in sadd, ay in says. 5, as in Tier; like i in Mrd, u in ttrgre. I, long, as in «C6; like y in fly, i, sfiort, as in tm; like ^ in hymn. 0, 2cm^, as in old; like ew in s&t(;, eau in beau, 6, short, as in not; like ^ in wTiat. H, Zonflr, as in itse; like ew in few. ikf^ short, as in stm; like 6 in rione. u, as in rude; like o in to, ^ in moon, ij, as in pitK; like 9 in tuolf, d& in /oo<. oi, as in boU; like oy in boy. ow, as in how; like ou in oii/r. 113. A consonant is a sound produced by an ob- struction to the breath. The word consona/nt comes from the Latin con, with, and sono, I sotmd. The consonant sounds are so called because, though they may be soimded separately, yet they are used only in combination with vowels in forming syllables. In English, a consonant alone never forms a syllable. 113* Consonants are divided into (1) Mutes, OBTHOQBAPHT. 67 sounds in the production of which the breath is completely stopped or checked, as 6 and J9; and (2) Spirants, in the production of which the breath is not altogether stopped, as v and /. 114. When not only the breath is stopped, but the veil that separates the nose from the membranous pouch forming the back part of the mouth, called the pharynx, is drawn aside, the consonants n^ ng^ and m, are formed. They are called nasals. 115. Consonants, considered with reference to the organs by which they are produced, are: 1. Aspirate, as h, produced by forcing the breath through the glottis. 2. OutturcUSf by the throat ; as, k, g, ch in chorus, 3. Palatals f by the palate ; as, ch in chv/rch, and j. 4. JDentals, by the teeth ; as, t, d, th. 5. LingtuilSf— otherwise called sibilants from their hissing sound,— by the tongue ; as, sh, eh, 8, z, 6. LahialSf by the lips ; as p, b, /, v. L and r are sometimes called trills^ because their produc- tion is accompanied by a vibratory movement of the soft palate and the tongue respectively. 116. Consonant sounds that require considerable effort in their production, as p and i, are called hard or sharp; those that require less effort, as, 6 and d, are called soft or flat 117. In the following table the consonant sounds are arranged in order, beginning with those produced in the throat, and ending with those produced by the lips: 68 ENOLISH GRAMMAR. Gutturals. • 1 • QQ 1 a • CO P • CO 1 d •15 M • M • eg • eg IS to CQ P o 02 bo C3 a 1 bo 43 o OQ 08 c8 I 5 a OQ QQ g3 0) CG ? OQ 5 E ^ 08 W 5 5 CO 08 rd'Si § 3 •I o 3 ® i^ y c8 t»C7rt a PU -4^ ^ «M OQ ^3 ■^ d as ^ 02 El di -»^ d c8 8 CO d cd d o ® '^ 9 bo O) OS'S d o o T3 d g8 d bo d ^;d CO § 00 I U OQ $ Pi O) 0) . §2 V4 OQ P« P4 P ORTHOGBAPHT. 69 118. The following letters have been omitted from this table: (1) c, because when used before a consonant or a, o, u^ it has the sound of k, as in case^ and when used before e, i, y^ it has the sound of s, soft, as in rice; (2) the soft sound of g, as in gem, because this is the same as j ; (3) g, because it is equivalent to kw ; (4) x, because it is equivalent to ks or gs. Note to TEA0HEB8.>-The classiflcdtions of vowels and consonants printed above are not given to be memorized, but for purposes of reference as occasion may require, and as a guide to drills in articulation. Pupils should be systematically drilled in the enunciation of the elementary vowel and consonant sounds, both separately and in combination, care being taken that in each instance the vocal organs are properly exercised. If, in sounding the consonants, children are required to observe and tell how they use the tongue, lips, teeth, etc., they will unconsciously learn the classes of gutturals, etc.— a knowledge that will be of incalculable value to those who jiroceed to the study of comparative philology, or even of a language other than their own. The Use of Capitals. 119. There are two ways in which to write each of the letters — as a capital, and as a small letter. Nearly all of our writing and printing is in small letters. Capitals are used occasionally for the sake of giving prominence to words. The first letter of a word is written as a capital in accordance with the following rules: Rules for Capitals. 1. Beg^ with a capital the first word of every sentence. 2* Begin with a capital the first word of every line oJf poetry. 3* Begin with a capital every proper noun and every prop^ adjective. 70 ENGLISH QBAMMAB. 4. Begin with a capital every name or title of the Deity. 5* Write the pronoun I and the interjection O with capitals. 6. Beg^in with capitals the names of the days of the week and the months of the year. 7* Begin with capitals the important words in the title of a book, or in the subject of any other composition. 8. Begin with a capital every title of honor or respect. 9* Begin with capitals the names of points of the compass when they denote sections of a country. Gold is found in the great North-west. 10. Begin with a capital every word that denotes an important epoch or event of history. The Civil "W«ir lasted four years. 11. Begin with a capital every personified common noun. Then Peace shall smile upon us, and Plenty abide among us. 12* Beg^n with a capital the name of every religious denomina- tion. 13. Begin with a capital every direct quotation. The first word of an indirect quotation should begin with a small letter, unless it requires a capital by the operation of some other rule. Di/rect. — He quoted the maxim, ** Honesty is the best policy." Ind/i/rect, — He reminded us that honesty is the best policy. Italics, Small Capitals, etc. 120. The letters used in ordinary printing are called Roman, because they were those used in writ- ing the Latin language. If we desire to call particular attention to a word, we may print it in italic char- acters; if to make it very emphatic, in small capi- tals; and if to make it still more emphatic, in LARGE CAPITALS. OBTHOGBAPHT. 71 1. Italics may be used for words that we desire to make emphatic, particularly if two or more words «ire placed in con- trast; as, Amongst the arts connected with the elegancies of social life, in a de- gree which nobody denies, is the art of conversation; but in a degree which almost everybody denies. If one may judge by their neglect of its simplest rules, this same art Is not less connected with the uses of social life.— Dx QuiNOBT, (kmversatUm. It is well to be very sparing in the use of italics. Their frequent employment is generally the mark of a weak thinker and unpracticed writer. 2. Words borrowed from another language are generally, and the names of newspapers, magazines, and books, sometimes, printed in italics; as, 1 prefer to be owned as sound and solvent, and my word as good as my bond, and to be what can not be skipped, or dissipated, or undermined, to all the eckU in the universe.— Embbson, Illusions, Bobinson Crusoe^ which is a fairy tale to the child, a book of adventure to the young, is a work on social philosophy to the mature. It is a picture of civilization.— Fbbdbbio Habbison, The Choice qf Books. It is also quite usual to write the names of books and period- icals within quotation marks. In manuscript, italics are indicated by a single line drawn underneath a word; small capitals, by two lines; LARGE CAPITALS, by three lines. Syllables. 121. A syllable is a vowel, or a vowel accom- panied by one or more consonants, which is pro- nounced by a single effort of the voice, and forms a word or part of a word ; as, /, you, imrCig-i-^na^tion. 132. A monosyllable is a word of one syllable ; a dissyllable, a word of two syllables; a trisyllable, a word of three syllables ; and a polysyllablei a word of four or more syllables. 72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 123* The hyphen {-) is a m«irk used in writing, when we desire to denote the division between syllables, or between the parts of a compound word. SylUxMcatioUf or the act of dividing a word into its syl- lables, is very important, since correct pronunciation requires that each syllable should receive its due value. In writing, it is seldom necessary to use the hyphen except at the end of a line, when, from lack of sx>ace, part of a word must be carried over to the next line. The following rules are important : 1. In dividing a word it is improper to make the division except at the end of a syllable ; as, Tm-mon, rhstro-rio, 2. "When two consonants come together, the first generaUy ends, the second begins, a syllable ; as, memrber, JnumMe, 3. Two vowels coming together should be sex)arated, unless they form a diphthong, or one of them is silent ; as, fre^er, 4. In the case of a derivative or compound word, it should be so divided as to throw the parts into sepcirate syllables; as, irrirpede, assist-cmce, same-where. Accent. 134. Accent is the stress of the voice upon a syllable of a word; as, hu'-mid, inrtend\ As a general rule, it may be said that the accent should be laid upon the root part of a word, rather than upon a prefix or a suffix; as, in4en'4ion:t mirpose', « 126. Many dissyllables, when accented on the first syllable, are nouns or adjectives ; when accented on the last syllable, verbs; as, Ifouna or Adjectives, Verbs. per' feet per feet' con'vert con vert' con'tract con tract' in'crease in crease' sur'vey sur vey' ORTHOGRAPHY. 73 186. A few dissyllables, when accented on the first syllable, are nouns ; when accented on the last syllable, adjectives: Nouns, AcUectives, Au'gust . au gust' com'pact com pact' in'stinct in stinct' min'ute min ute' su'pine Spetjjng. su pine' » 137. Spelling is the process of naming, or of writing in proper order, the letters of a word. If each letter represented but one sound, spelling would be an easy matter ; but as our alphabet is both redundant and de- fective, it is one of great difficulty. The best way to become an accurate speller is to read much, to observe closely the forms of words, and to write frequently. To know the derivation of a word often gives a key to its spelling. If you are not sure of the spelling of a word, do not write it until you have looked it up in a dictionary. Other matters of importance in connection with spelling will be discussed in the chapter on "Word Forma- tion." 138. Dr. Abbott lays down this principle to ex- plain many of the curious things in English spell- ing, some of which are indicated in the following rules: A letter is often changed or doubled in passing from one form of a word to another^ in order to preserve the original sound.* • See Abbott's "How to Parse." pp. 174-178. 74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 139. I. — Final y preceded by a consonant is changed into i upon the addition of any affix (ex- cept ing) beginning with a vowel, or before ment^ ly^ ful^ nesSj fy^ hood; as, happy ^ happier^ happiness; defy, defiance; country, countries; beauty, beautiful, beautify \ hardy, hardihood. The reason is, that, if this change were not made, the sound might be altered. For example, hazier might be pronounced haz-yer. Babyhood is an exception. Beauteous and plenteous are adjectives not formed according to the rule. 130. II. — Final y preceded by a vowel, or before the aflSx ing, is retained; as, pity, pitying-, valley, valleys; money, moneys. The y is retained before ing to prevent the repetition of i; and, in the other cases, because the sound is not affected. Die forms dying: li&, lying; tie, tying; vie, vying; to pre- vent the accumulation of vowels. 131. in. — Final e silent is generally omitted be- fore a sufl&x beginning with a vowel; as, grieve, griev-ance; please, pleas-^re. Exceptions to this rule are words ending in ce or gre, which retain the e before suffixes beginning with a or o in order to prevent a change of sound in the c or g; as, service^ service- able; ofjUrage, outrage-ous, • Again, when e is preceded by e, o, y, it is often retained before ing, able; as, shoe-ing. agree-oble. This is to prevent a change of sound. The 6 in dyeing is preserved to distinguish the word from dying. ORTHOGRAPHY. 75 133. IV.— Final e is generally retained before a suflix beginning with a consonant ; as, pale, paleness. Exceptions to this rule are abridgment, acknowledgment, argwment, awful, duly, judgment, truly, wholly, nursling. 133. V. — Derivatives formed by adding one or more syllables to words ending in a double con- sonant, usually retain both consonants ; as, ebb, ebbing ; stiff, stiffness; will, willful-, shrill, shrillness. Exceptions are almost, althoibgh, albeit, also, altogether, belfry, welfare, elbow, 134. VL — Derivatives formed by prefixing one or more syllables to words ending in a double consonant usually retain both consonants; as, undersell, fare- well, downfall, fulfill, befell. TTntU and adjectives terminating in ful are exceptions. 135. VII. — Monosyllables, and polysyllables ac- cented on the last syllable, when they end in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel ; as, thin, thirMier ; hop, - hop-ping ; forget, forgetnting ] acquit, acquit-ting. The reason of this fact is to preserve the sound of the original word. Were the p in hop not doubled before ing, the word would be confounded with hopi/ng, the present participle of hope, A final consonant, when it is preceded by two vowels, or when the accent does not fall on the last syllable, is not doubled before an additional syllable; as, toil, toUmg; offer, offering; travel, tra/veler; worship, tvorshiper. 76 ENGLISH QBAMMAR. CHAPTER Mi. ETYMOLOGY. 136. Etymology treats of the classification, infleo* tion, and formation of words. (See 96.) 137. According to their use in the sentence, all the words in our language are arranged in eight classes, called parts of speech. These are, 1. The noun. 2. The pronoun. 3. The adjective. 4. The verb. 5. The adverb. 6. The prei)osition. 7. The conjunction. 8. The interjection. 138. As the words comprised in the classes, notm^ adjective, verb, and adverb, express each a notion or idea of its own, these are sometimes called notional words. 139. As the words comprised in the classes, pro- nov/n, preposition, and conjunction, serve only to show the relations of other words one to another, they are termed relational words. The interjection has no grammatical relation to the other words of the sentence ; nor does it express a notion or idea. It serves rather to color the thought of the sentence with feeling. (See 41.) In the English language, as it is known to us in the earliest writings still extant, the relations of notional words one to another are indicated by inflections. Most of these inflections have been dropped and their places taken by relational words. ETTMOLOGT, 77 Exercise 2^,— Complete the following table: Words, { ,^^' THE NOXTET. 140. Definition. — A Noun is a word used as the name of something: Washington^ Charles; horse, tree; committee, crowd; happiness, truth. Classes of Nouns. 141. In the sentence, The Hudson is a large river, two words, Hudson and river, are names of the same object, and, both being names, they are nouns. But there is a difference in their meaning. The name river is a term that is applied to any body of water answering a certain description. The name Hudson, on the other hand, is given to a single river to distinguish it from all other bodies . of water of the same kind. It belongs to one par- ticular river. 142. Hence, nouns, according as they are names used to distinguish individual objects from other objects of the same kind, or are given in common to a number of objects of the same kind, are divided into ' two great classes : L Braper Xaunsm IL Common Nouns. 78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 143. Definition.— A proper noun is a name that belongs only to some particulM person, place, or thing. The word proper is derived from the Latin propriua, mean- ing one's own, 144* The same proper name is sometimes given to more than one . individual of a class. Thus, there are many Johns, Marys, etc.; several towns are called Washington: there is a Boston in America, and a Boston in England. These names are, however, strictly proper nouns, because they were separately given, and .are used to distinguish individuals, and not classes. Occasionally, proper nouns are used to denote a class or group; as, the Ccesars, the Ada/mses, meaning all who belong to certain families. Again, the name of some distinguished man is sometimes applied to another who is supposed to possess similar quahties; as, a modem Solon, meaning a statesman re- sembling the great Greek lawgiver ; a young Napoleon, a Daniel come to judgmsnt. In such cases the proper noun is said to be used as a common noim. 145. Definition. — ^A common noun is a noun that is used as the name of a class of things. The word common is derived from a Latin word that means belonging to more than one. Hence, a common noun is a name that belongs not only to a class, but to each individual of that class. 146. All common nouns are names of classes. But, as classes are of various kinds, so there are different kinds of common nouns to distinguish dif- ferent classes. 147. A class of things is usually made up of single objects that possess some distinguishing mark STTMOLOGT. 79 or marks in common ; as, plants Jwrse, stone. Many of these classes may be separated into smaller classes, each composed of individual objects. Thus, the class of things called plants may be divided into trees, shrubs, and herbs. Each of these classes may be further divided : trees into pine, oak, ma'ple, etc. ; shrubs into rose, cwrramJt, gooseberry, etc. ; herbs into clover, pink, gera/aiwm, etc. Now, the distinguishing mark of these classes is that they are each made up of things or objects having some quality or property in common. And, as our notion of an object is made up of several united qualities, such as si^e, shape, color, etc., we may call the name of such an object a concrete common noun. — 148. Definition.— A concrete noun is a common noun that denotes an object or a class of objects by a union of qualities. Under this head are included the names of things in bulk; as, wheat, gram: and the names of materials; as, i/ron, wood, etc. The word object means a tMng tlvrown m the way of the mind to think about. The word concrete properly means grown together; hence, it is used to mean a person: or thing with all his or its qualitiea 149. There are some names that denote groups of objects. We speak, for instance, of a family (meaning father, mother, brothers, sisters, etc.), of a herd of cattle, a bevy of young ladies, a crowd of people, a brood of chickens, a bunch of grapes, a row of houses. In all these cases the names denote 80 BNQLIBH GBAMMAM. olassea But the unit of thought — that about which the mind is thinking — is not a single object, but a group of objects. Hence, a name that denotes a group is called a collective common noun. 160. Definition. — A collective noun is a common noun that denotes a group or a class made up of groups of objects. 151. The difference between a concrete common noun and a collective common noun, is this : a concrete common noun, such as tree, is a name not only for a class of plants, but also for each individual member of that class ; the oak is a tree, the maple is a treey the pme is a tree, and so on. The collective noun forest, on the other hand, while it may be applied to any one of many collections or groups of trees, can not be applied to an individual tree. We can not say, The oak is a forest, or the like. 163. Again, there are names that do not denote directly either things or groups of things. We may- think or speak, not of the person John, but of some quality of his body, as, height, weight; of some quality of his character, as, honesty, folly, goodness; or of some power of his mind, as, memory, imagina- tion. The name of a quaUty, feeling, action, etc., thought of as separated or abstracted from the ob- ject to which it belongs, is called an abstract com- mon noun. 163. DEFmmoN.^An abstract noun is a common noun that denotes a class of qualities, feelings, facul- ties, or actions ; as, whiteness^ joy, memory, pwaishn menU ETTMOLOQT. 81 The word abstract is derived from the Latin word dbstractiis, meaning dra/um atuay, or sejparated. 154. As the adjective is the part of speech that expresses quality, most abstract nouns are formed from adjectives, and denote the qualities when con- sidered apart from the persons or things to which they belong ; as, good^ goodness ; vnse^ wisdom. Many abstract noims are formed by the addition of the suffix ness; as, hrigMt brightness; righteous, righteousness; bktck, blackness. Some end in th; as, triie, truth; wide, width; dead, death. Others end in ty; as, noble, nobiUty; curious, curiosity; honest, honesty. Others, again, take the termination ce; as, prudent, prudence; patient, patience ; reverent, reverence. 165. Abstract nouns denoting actions considered apart from the actors, are formed from verbs; as, serve, service; choose, choice. Many abstract nouns formed from verbs end in tion; as, protect, proteof/ion ; move, motion ; reflect, reflection. Other examples «ire relief, advice, pleasu/re. 156. Abstract nouns are also formed from con- crete common nouns; as, thief, theft; hero, heroism. Such derivatives generally mean the state or condition de noted by the nouns from which they are derived. Many such nouns end in sMp; as, friendshdp, the condition of being a friend ; leadership, the condition of being a leader. Others again end in Tiood; as, manhood, the condition of being a man ; childhood, the condition of being a child. 157. When an abstract noun is used to denote a class of 82 EN0LI8H GBAMMAB, individuals, it becomes a common noun. The word nobility, for example, is used in England to denote not only the quality of being noble, but a particular class of people who are supposed to possess this quality. When so used it is a common noun. Exercise 24. — Complete the following table: Nouns. ^ Exercise 25. — From a page of your Reader select all the nov/ns and classify them as proper, concrete, abstract, and collective. QU ESTIONS. Deflno etymology. On what principle is a classification of words made? What is meant by apart qf speech f Name the parts of speech. What is meant by a notional word? A relational wordf Define noun. Wherein do a proper noun and a common noun agree? Wherein do they diflfer? Wherein do a concrete common noun, a collective common noun, and an abstract conmion noun, agree? Wherein do they differ? What is the literal meaning of the word proper? The word common? The word abstract? How are abstract common nouns classified according to their structure ? Oive examples and state the meaning of each. Inflections of Nouns. - 158. Nouns may be inflected, or changed in form, to indicate difference in number, gender, and case. These properties belong to both nouns and pro- iiou»s. ETYMOLOGY, 83 Number. 159. Definition. — Number is that form or use of a word by which it denotes one or more than one. nat, hats ; fox^ foxes ; mouse, mice. 160. It follows that there are two numbers in English grammar; one to express one thing, another to express more than one. 161. Definition. — The sing^ular number of a noun is the form or use of it that denotes one. 163. Definition. — The plural number of a noun is the form or use of it that denotes more than one. 163. The singular is regarded as the stem of the noun, and from it the plural is formed in various ways. Rule.— J/bsi nouns add s or es to the singular to' form the plural. Book, hooks; lion, lions; branch, branches. 164. When the s sound can be attached without making an additional syllable, s alone is used ; as, boy, boys; girl, girls. 165. But when the s sound makes an additional syllable, es is used. This is the case where the 84 ENGLISH QBAMMAR, singular ends in a hissing sound, such as 8, z, x, ah, and ch (sounded as in the word chv/rch) ; as, hiss, hisses; adz^ adzes; sash, sashes. 166. Custom has made some nouns ending in o add s to the singular to form the plural, and others es. Some of those which add 8 are the following: bravo grotto solo foUo canto octavo stiletto nuncio duodecimo portico tyro oratorio embryo quarto virtuoso portfolio Some of those which add 68 are the following: buffalo echo mosquito potato calico flamingo motto tomato cargo hero mulatto tornado domino manifesto negro volcano 167. Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel form their plurals in the regular way ; as, valley, valleys. But when the singular ends in y preceded by a consonant, the y is changed into i and es is added to form the plural; as, duty, duties; sky, skies; spy, spies. (See 139 and 130.) 168* Most nouns ending in f or fe form their plurals ac- cording to the rule, but some change the / into v and the plural form ends in t>6s; as, fifes, 8hiff8, cHffs, strifes; Tialf, haH/vea; bM/, shelves. ETYMOLOGY. 85 169. A few nouns form their plurals in ways once common in our language, but now little used. 1. By adding en; as. SkiguUxr, Flural, SlngfOar, BwrdU OX oxen brother brethren COW ki'ne child children Oxen is the only word in which the plural termination en, once very common, is now preserved in its purity. In the other cases, the words have been gradually modified to their present forms. 2. By changing the vowel soimd of the word ; as. aingtdar. PturaL Singular, HuToL man men tooth teeth foot feet mouse mice goose geese woman women 170. A few nouns have the same form for the singular and the plural ; as, cfeer, sheep, swine, cod, trout, mackerel, etc. 171. Many nouns have been imported into the English language from foreign languages. When these have passed into common use, they form their plurals in the regular way. Examples are indexes, bandits, cherubs, formulas, memxyrandwms, focuses, terminuses. But the foreign plurals, indices, banditti, cherubim, Jormulce, memoranda, foci, termini, are also used. Others, not used so frequently, retain their foreign plurals. Examples are* 86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, LAT IN. GREEK. SUigfdar. FhuxU. Singular. HvraL larva larvae automaton automata nebula nebulae criterion criteria radius dictum datum radii dicta data phenomenon analysis thesis phenomena analyses theses effluvium effluvia antithesis antitheses erratum medium errata media hypothesis basis hypotheses bases stratum strata crisis crises apex appendix index (in algebra) apices appendices indices ellipsis miasma ellipses miasmata vertex vortex vertices vortices FREN CH. axis axes beau beaux amanuensis amanuenses (Mr.) Messieurs genus genera (Mrs.) Mesdames 173. Messieurs and Mesdames are French words adopted into English as the plurals of Mr. and Mrs. Some foreign nouns are generally used in the plural; as, aborigines, literati. 173. Some words, plural in form, are usually treated as singular; as, means, news, amends, odds, tidings, wages, sv/mmons, gallows. Memts, pains, and wages may be used in the plural. News is always singular. Swmrmms takes a plural, summonses. 174. Certain nouns ending in ic5, derived from Greek ad- jectives, are always used in the singular; as, politics, etMcs, ph/ysics, optics, mathematics. Logic, similarly derived, omits the s. ETTMOLOGT. 87 175. Some nouns, because they are the names of things found only in pairs, or consisting of more than one part, are used only in the plural. Such are : scissors victuals shears tongs entrails measles breeches nuptials matins drawers scales tweezers pincers dregs trousers 176. The nouns richeSf almSy and eaves, though often treated as plurals, are- really singular in form. 177. Some nouns have two plurals, which differ in meaning ; as, Singular. Flural. brother brothers (by birth) cloth cloths (kinds of cloth) die dies (for coining) fish fishes (separate fish) J geniuses (persons of great ) e^"""" \ ability) . r index indexes (tables of contents) pea peas (regarded separately) penny pennies (separate coins) shot shots (discharges) brethren (of a community) clothes (garments) dice (for play) fish (collective) genii (spirits). indices (in Algebra), pease (collective), pence (sum of money), shot (balls). 178. Some nouns have, in the plural, one form and two meanings; as, Singular, custom letter number pain part Hurais. customs : (1) habits ; (2) revenue duties, letters: (1) of alphabet; (2) literature, numbers : (1) in counting ; (2) in poetry, pains: (1) sufferings; (2) trouble, care parts : (1) divisions ; (2) abilities. 88 BNQLISH GRAMMAR. 179. Proper nouns generally form their plurals regularly. In names of persons, where a descriptive term or a title is prefixed, the name alone adds 8 for the plural ; as, the two Dr. Smiths. We may say, however, the Miss Brotuns, or the Misses Brown. The first form seems to imply that they are thought of separately; the second, collectively. We may speak of Misses Ja/ne cmd Mary Wheeler; or Miss Jcme and Miss Mary Wheeler. If two or more different men are spoken of, we use Mes- siewrs, usually written in the contracted form, Messrs.; as, Messrs. Jackson, Dix, and Harmon. In enumerating several ladies by their surnames, we write Mesdames, if they are married ; Misses, if they are single. 180. Abstract nouns have no plural Occasionally, however, these nouns are used, not to signify a quality or an action regarded separately, but to denote i)ar- ticular varieties of quality or particular actions. They then become concrete common nouns, and take the plural form. Hence, we speak of liberties, virtues, vices, etc. 181. Names of substances or materials, such as wi/ne, sv^a/r, iron, gold, are generally used only in the singular. When used in the plural, as tomes, brandies, sugars, etc., the words mean different kinds of wine, brandy, etc. 183. Compound nouns generally add the sign of the plural to the principal word. Three cases may be distinguished : 1. Compoimds of a noun and a modifying word or phrase, add the sign of the plural to the noun; as, oourts-martiai, fathers-i/n^law, sons-irirlaw. BTTMOLOQT. 89 2. When the parts have become so nearly allied in meaning that the meaning is incomplete until the whole is known, the sign of the plural is added at the end ; as, handfiUs, rose4r6e8, fcmr-per-cents, ma^or-generals, attorney-generals, 3. A few compounds of two noims inflect both parts ; as, menserva/nts, kmg?Us4empla/r8. 183. A noun modified by a numeral often omits the sign of the plural ; as, two brace of hirds^ a two-foot rule, sixty head of cattle. Exercise 26. — Make a list m colurrm form of the singular nov/ns mentioned in § 165-183, and then write opposite to each its plural form. Exercise 27. — Make sentences in which the two meanings of eax^h of the plurals of the nov/ns men- tioned in §178, will he displayed. Gender. 184. Living beings are either of the male sex or of the female sex. Things without life have no dis- tinction of sex — ^are sexless. 185. Definition.— Gender is that form or use of a word by which it denotes sex. 186. To the three classes into which all things are divided with respect to sex, correspond three genders : TMng$. Words. Of male sex, Masculine gender. Of female sex. Feminine gender. Sexless, Neuter gender. 90 BNGLiaH GRAMMAR. 187. Definition.— The masculine gender is that form or use of a word which denotes the male sex. 188. Definition.— The feminine gender is that form or use of a word which denotes the female sex. 189. Definition.- The neuter gender is that form or use of a word which denotes the absence of sex. The word g&nd&r comes from the Latin word genus, mean- ing kind or sort. The word neuter properly means neither: i, 6., neither mas- culine nor feminine. Father, son, king, buU, James, are nouns of the masculine gender. Mother, daughter, queen, cow, Jane, are nouns of the femi- nine gender. Bock, stone, tree, Tiottse, Boston, are nouns of the neuter gender. 190. The names of things whose sex is not taken into ac- count, as of very young children and many animals, are some- times regarded as of the neuter gender. Thus, we sx)eak of TTie babe and its toys; The fish a/nd its eggs. 191. Names that may be applied to persons of either sex, as, parent, friend, servant; and in the case of animals names that do not indicate sex, as, bird, swan, dove, bear, etc., are sometimes spoken of as being of common gender. But if there is any thing in the sentence to indicate sex, the noun should be regarded as of the masculine or the fem- inine gender. Thus, in the sentence, TTie parent loves her children, the pronoun J^r clearly shows that the noun parent is of the feminine gender. The nouns inan and mankind are often used to denote all human beings. ETYMOLOGY. 91 193. Things without life are often, particularly in poetry, spoken of as being of the male or the female sex. They are then said to be personified, and their names are regarded, if implying strength, power, or violence, as masculine ; if implying gentle- ness, beauty, or peace, as feminine. The sfu/a is often spoken of as masculine; the moon, a ship^ or a balloon, as feminine. A thousand years their cloudy wings expand Around me, and a dying glory smiles O'er the fair times, when many a subject land Looked to the winged Lion's marble piles Where Venice sa/t i/n state, throned on her hwndred isles. —Lord Byron. 193* The gender of nouns is shown in three ways: 1. By using different words for the masculine and the feminine. The more important examples are : MbucuUm. bachelor boy brother drake ead father gander hart horse husband Feminine, spinster girl sister duck countess mother goose roe mare wife Masculine, king lord monk nephew ram sir sloven son uncle wizard Feminine. queen lady nun niece ewe slut (or slattern) daughter aunt witch This method of distinguishing gender depends altogether on the meaoing of words, and is not, properly speaking, an in- flectipii. 92 ENGLISH QBAMMAE. 2. By the use of different endings or suffixes ; as, ess, trix, ine^ a, en, sfer, added to the masculine to form the feminine. (a) Soinetdmes ess, which is the most common soffiz, is added to the masculine without other change. Miueuline, Feminine, Miuaittne, Fsminine, baron beuroness Jew Jewess count countess lion lioness deacon deaconess patron I)atroness heir heiress poet poetess host hostess prophet prophetess (&) Sometimes the final syllable or letter of the masculine form is merged in the feminine termination ; as, abbot abbess instructor instructress actor actress marquis mcuxhioness benefactor benefactress master mistress duke duchess murderer murderess emperor empress protector protectress enchanter enchantress tiger tigress governor governess traitor traitress (o) The feminine suffix trix is found in a few nouns bor- rowed from the Latin langusige: MEUcullne, Feminine. MaeeuOne. MT^wifWNvvVv* adjutor adjutriz executor executrix administrator administratrix heritor heritrix director directrix testator testatrix ((f) The suffixes ine and ina are frequently found in prox)er names of women ; as, Josephme, Alee cfwrfew toUs the knell of parting day. The teo/cher admsed^he hoy to returru A tradn, fwe cars long, passed the depot. The nouns, kneU and day, are the objects respectively of the verb toUs and of the preposition of. Boy is the subject of the infinitive to retv/m, and the whole phrase, the boy to retwm, is the object of the verb advised. Cars is equivalent to an ad- verbial phrase, by five cars, modifying the adjective long. A noun, or the equivalent of a noun, with a governing; preposition, forms a phrase, which may be used as the subject or the object of a sentence, or as an adjective or an adverbial modifier. (See 55 and 57.) 310. When, as in the following sentences, a noun explains the meaning of another noun, the explain- 98 BNGLI8H GRAMMAR. ing noun is said to be in the same case by apposi- tion as the noun explained, *^ Arnold, the traitor ^ betrayed JUs oomUry. I soAJO Stevenson, the novelist. 311. The following are examples of the declension of nouns. (See § 93.) Declension of NouNa SUngutar, nvral. SUngutar, FturaL NOM. girl girls man men Poss. girl's girls' man's men's Obj. girl girls man men NOM. lady ladies sheep sheep Poss. lady's ladies' sheep's sheep's Obj. lady ladies sheep sheep Person. 313. Definition. — Person is the use of a noun that indicates whether it denotes the person speah- ing, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken about. 313. A noun denoting the person that speaks is said to be in the first person; as, I, Be9\fafnin Harrison, do issue this my proda/mation. 314. A noun denoting the person spoken to is said to be in the second person ; as, Tou, John, are wrong, 316. A noun denoting the person or thing spoken about is said to be in the third person ; as, Shakespeare wrote plays. Washington was a surveyor. BTTMOLOQT. 09 S16. We can tell the person of a noun only by noticing the context of the sentence in which it is used. Substitutes for Nouns. 217. Words, phrases, and clauses, not properly Qouns, are frequently used as nouns. These substi- tutes may be:-- 1. Pronouns. (See 319 and following.) 2. Adjectives. Adjectives may be used to denote concrete things ; as, the deepf meaning tTie ocean; the poor, meaning poor people; the English^ meaning the EngUsh people. Or they may have the force of abstract nouns ; as when we speak of the true, or th>e beautiful, for truth and beauty, 8. Adverbs. In history we shovM learn the when, the why, a/nd the howm 4. Noun Phrases. To see is to believe. To be united is to be strong. 6. Noun Clauses. That you have wronged tne, doth appear in this. — Shakespeare, Ma/n/y facts prove that the world is round. Parsing the Noun. 218. To parse a noun is to state the following facts regarding it : I. The class to which it belongs. n. Its person, number, and gender, m. Its case. ^'^ IV. The reason for its case ; telling either, 1. Of what verb it is the subject, or predicate complement ; 100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 2. Of what verb or preposition it is the object; 8. If in the possessive, what nov/n it modifies; 4. If in apposition, what noun it explains ; 5. Or that it is nominative iTy address, or nomi- native absolute ^ ' '^ Exercise 28. — Analyze the following sentences, parse each nov/a, and point out phrases or clauses used as nouns 1. The golden ripple on the wall came again. 2. In the lexicon of youth there*s no such word as fcAl, 3. Absence of occupation is not rest. 4. No noble human thought, however buried in the dust of ages, can ever come to naught. 5. Our greatest glory is not in never falling, but in rising every time we fall. 6. The lightest wave of influence, set in motion, extends and widens to the eternal shore. 7. The heights by great men reached and kept. Were not attained by sudden flight ; But they, while their companions slept. Were toiling upward in the m^t.^LongfeUow, 8. Count that day lost whose low-descending sun Views from thy hand no worthy action done. 9. Books give to all who will faithfully use them, the so ciety, the spiritual presence, of the best and greatest of our race. 10. The door-step to the temple of wisdom is a knowledge of our own ignorance. 11. The unwearied sim from day to day Doth his Creator's power display, And publishes to every land The work of an Almighty hand.— ^cWison. 12. Do not read too much at a time, stop when you are tired, and always review what you have read. ^ r ETYMOLOGY. 101 Exercise 29. — Pdrae all the nouns in the followmg selections : 1. Good name, in man or woman, dear my lord, Is the immediate jewel of their souls. Who steals my purse, steals trash ; 'tis something, nothing ; *Twas mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thousands; But he that filches from me my good name, Robs me of that which not enriches him. And makes me poor indeed. — Shakespeare, 2. It is the greatest courage to be able to bear the imputa- tdon of the want of courage.— ^enry Clay. 3. We live in deeds, not years; in thoughts, not breaths; In feelings, not in figures on a dial. — BaMey. 4. If a man empties his purse into his head, no one can take it away from him. An investment in knowledge always pays the best interest. — Benja/min Franklin, 5. "The sea," cried the miller, "is the greatest thing God made. That is where all the water in the world runs down into a great salt lake. There it lies as flat as my hand, and as innocent-like as a child ; but they do say when the wind blows it gets up into water-mountains bigger than any of ours, and swallows down great ships bigger than our mill, and makes such a roaring that you can hear it miles away upon the land. There are great fish in it five times bigger than a bull, and one old serpent as long as our river and as old as all the world, with whiskers like a man, and a crown of silver on her head." — Bdbert Louds Stevenson. \ THE PBONOITN. 219. Definition. — A pronoun is a word that de- notes persons or things without naming them. See §29, and work again Exercise 5. 220. The noun and the pronoun agree in that their grammatical functions in a sentence are the same. WZ BNGUan GRAMMAR. They differ in that a noun is a name, whereas a pronoun is a substitute for a name. 331. Pronouns have the same properties as nouns, person^ number^ gender^ and case. 333. The noun to which a pronoun refers, or for which it stands, is called its antecedent. The word antecedent means going before, Gtenerally the noun to which the pronoun refers, or for which it stands, pre- cedes the pronoun. It frequently happens, however, that the noun to which the pronoun refers follows the pronoun as in § 213, or is not mentioned at all, as when we say of a -per- son who has just left. He is gone. But in all cases the idea of the person or thing referred to is supposed to be present in the mind of the speaker, and to be easily linderstood by the hearer. Classes and Inflections. 333. Pronouns may be divided into five classes: I. Personal. J, thou, you, we, they, etc. IL Interrogative, who? which? what? III. Relative. who, wTidch, (hat, wJiat, rv. Demonstrative. th4s, that, these, those, V. Indefinite. one, some, each, etc. Personal Pronouns. 334. The word person once meant an actor's part in a play. As in plays, so in conversation, there are the speaker, the listener, and the person or thing talked about. Pronouns that by their form enable us to distinguish the person or thing in each of these three relations, are called personal pronouns. ETYMOLOGY. 103 2!35« Personal pronouns are divided into two classes: 1. Simple Personal Pronouns; as, /, you^ we. 2. Compound Personal Pronouns; as, myself ^ ov/rselves, themselves. 326, Personal pronouns have different forms for the three persons. (See § 312.) 227. The pronouns of the first person are /, with its plural we; and myself j ourselves. 228. The pronouns of the second person are thou, with its plural ye or you ; and thyself yourself y ov/r- selves. 229. The pronouns of the third person are he, she, and it, with their plural they ; and himself her- self itself and themselves. 230. The simple personal pronoun of the first person is inflected for number and case but not for gender, because the sex of the person speaking is always supposed to be known. aingvlar. Bural, NOM. I we Poss. my, mine our, ours Obj. me us I is always written as a capital letter. 231. In the expression rnetJmilcs, me is the remnant of an old Anglo-Saxon inflection called the daUve case, and thinks comes from an old verb, thmcany to seem. It means, "It seems to me.'* Our verb think comes from a verb thenocm, to think. 104 ENGLISH QBAMMAB. Methinks I see in my mind a noble and pudsacmt ncuhn, —Milton. S3!3. Proi>erly speciking, the pronoun I can not have a plu- ral. The plural tue denotes the speaker and one or more for whom he speaks. It may mean, for instance, you and I, my fatfier and I, my school-feUotus and J. S33. When persons other than the person speaking are mentioned, it is proper to put the pronoun denoting the speaker last ; as, JoTin cmd L 2341:. The plural we is used in the following sx>ecial cases: 1. In the editorials of newspapers : as, We are of opinion, etc. It seem^ to us, etc. 2. In speaking for himianity generally: Strong pwrposes our minds possess, Our hearts affections flU, We toil and earn, we seek and lea/m. And thou descendest stiU, —Arthur Hugh Clouoh. 3. In foreign countries, sovereigns generally use the plural form in issuing their proclamations; as, We, the Em,peror of Qermam/y, etc. 235, The simple personal pronoun of the second person is inflected for number and case but not for gender, because the sex of the person addressed is supposed to be known by the speaker. Singutar. IfuiraL NOM. thou ye, you Poss. thy, thine your, yours Obj. thee ye, you 236. The plural forms you, yov/r, yours, are now used for purposes of address, both in the singular and in the plural, ex- BTTMOLOOY. 105 cept by members of the Society of Friends, who still address one another in the singular by thou, thy, thine, and tJiee. Thou was formerly used in address as a term of endear- ment ; it was also used to denote familiarity, and so came to imply contempt. If thou thouest him some thrice, it shall not he amiss.— Shakbspeabe. Except by members of the Society of Friends, thou is now used only in the following cases : 1. In the worship of the Almighty : HdUowed he thy name, 2. In poetry: JEaU to thee (a skylark), hUthe spirit^ Bird thou never wertr- That from heoAsen or near it Pourest thy full heart In profuse strains of unpremeditated art, —Shelley. !337« Ye is now used only in appeals and exclamations foimd in poetry and in elevated prose ; as, Ye crags and peaks ! Nor you, ye proud, impute to them the fault. — Gray. S38. The pronoun of the third person is inflected in the lingular for number, case, and gender ; in the plural, for number and case, while gender is learned from the context: BIKGULAB. FLUBAL. Maac, Fern. Ntut. M. F. N, NOM. he she it they Poss. his her its their Obj. him her it them He and she are used for personified objects. (See § 192.) H stands for the name of a human being or an animal when sex is not thought of, as well as for a thing without life. 100 BNGLI8H OSAMMAR Light the la/mp and bring it here. Tell the child that it must stop crying, S39. Dr. Bain distinguishes between the backward and the forward reference of the pronoun U. This pronoun may refer hack to a noun, as in the foregoing examples. Or to an infinitive phrase used as a noun; as. To resist yov/r acts was necessary, as it (namely, to resist yowr acts) was just. Or to a clause ; as, I have done the state sortie service, and they know it; which means that they know the fact that I ?uw& done the state some service. Again, the pronoun it may refer forward to a noun, a phrase, or a clause ; as. It is horrible — this crime* It is hedlthy to walk. It is probable that the day wiU be fine* Sometimes the reference is quite indefinite, as in the expres- sions: It rams. How is it with me? We roughed it on our jou/mey. We must suppose that there is something in the mind of the speaker not fully expressed. S41:0« Jj5s is a modem form. The old neuter possessive was his, which was in constant use up to the seventeenth century, and is to be found in King James' translation of the Bible : Thou sfialt make a candlestick of pwre gold: .... his shaft, cmd his branches, his bowls, his knobs, and his flowers shall be of the same, — ^Exod. xxv. 31. In such a time as thds it is not meet That every nice offence should bear his comment, — Shakespeare. By Shakespeare the iminflected form it Is sometimes used for the possessive : Go to it grandam, cTiHd .... and it gra/ndam, will give U a pVu/m, — Shakespeare. ETTM0L0G7. 107 241. The forms mt/, thy^ her^ his, its^ our, yov/r, their J are used to modify nouns directly : Your fauU is great. Our money is invested. Thei/r land is well cultivated. 242. The forms mine, thine, ov/rs, yours, theirs, and sometimes his and hers, though possessive m form, have come to be used only in the nominative and objective cases. They are in reality substitutes for a noun and its possessive modifier: My hat is new, yours (your hat) is old. The fault is yours. The money is ours. The land is thei/rs. I have his, he has mine. Theirs have increased, ours have decreased. 343. The parsing of tbe pronouns given in the last example should be as follows: My is a personal pronoun, in the first person, singular nu/m- ber, possessive case, and modifies the noun hat. Yowrs is a personal pronoun, seoond person, plv/ral nvmber, possessive in form, but used in the nominatwe case as subject of the verb is. It is a substitute for the words yov/r hat. 244. In the idiomatic expression, Thds is a hook of mine, of mine is an adjective phrase modif3dng book. Mine may be parsed as a personal pronoun, possessive in form, governed in the objective case by of. Some grammarians explain this con- struction by supplying an ellipsis: "This is a book of my books." But it would be difficult to explain in this way such expressions as, Thds hea/rt of mine, that soul of thdne. The idiom probably arose from the mixture of two constructions— a pure possessive and an adjective phrase. (See § 207.) 245. Poets and orators occasionally use mdne and th4ne instead of my ahd thy before a word beginning with a voweL to heighten the effect. 108 ENQLI8H GRAMMAR TfUfie cmgvdsh tviU not let thee sleep.^TKKSYBOV. Mine eyes ha/ve seen the glory of the corning of the Lord, At one time this was the prevalent usage : SfiaU T not take mine ease in mine inn, hut I shaU have my pocket picked f — Shakbspbark. :346. The compound personal pronouns are : Singular, Plural, myself ourselves thyself yourselves himself themselves herself itself 247. These forms are used only in the nomi- native and objective cases; never in the possessive. 248. The uses of the compound personal pro- nouns are two: 1, Reflexive; 2, Emphatic. 249. The reflexive use, indicating that the actor becomes the object of his own action, is seen in the following : I know myself now. — Shakespkabk. Love thyself last.—Ihid, He that wrongs his friend wrongs himself more. — Tennyson. VatUting ambition wTUch overleaps itself. — Shakespeare. /CoO. The emphatic use is seen in such expressions as, I myself saw the deed. Tennyson employs myself in both ways in the following ® • ^''^ I m,yself sometimes despise myself. Parsing. -^^l. A personal pronoun is parsed as a noun is parsed. (See § 218.) ETTM0L0Q7. 109 fixERClSE 80. — Parse all the personal pronouns in the illustrative sentences found in §§ 334, 336, 337, 343, 347, and 348. Exercise 81. — Barse all the personal pronowas in Exercises 28 and 29. QU ESTION S. Wherein do a notin and a pronoun agree? Wherein do they differ? What are some of the grammatical functions of nouns and pronouns? What are the properties of pronouns? What is the noun, to which a pronoun refers, called? G-ive a sentence in which the antecedent does not precede the pronoun. Classify pronouns. Why are the personal pronouns so called? Name the personal pronouns of the first person. Of the second person. Of the third person. Why are the personal pronouns of the first and second persons not inflected for gender? Explain the expression metMnka. What does the plural form toe denote? What is the meaning in the lines quoted in $234? Quote lines that show the use of thou and y^ in poetiy. Distinguish and illustrate the backward and forward use of it. State and illustrate the history of Ua. How are the forms my, thy^ etc., and iTiiiM, tMne^ etc., used? Explain the construction. This book of mine. Make sentences showing the reflexive and the emphatic usee of the oompoond personal pronotms. Interrogative Pronouns. 363. Definition. — ^An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used in asking questions. 363. The interrogative pronouns are who, which, what, and whether. Who JuUh heUeved ov/r report, a/nd to whom is the arm of the Lord revealed ^— Bible. 110 mrOLLSE GRAMMAR What is sweeter than Jioneyf What is stronger Oian a lion f— Bible. Which of you by taking thought com add one cvbU to hia statwre t—'BxsL^ 354, Who refers only to human beingSy and to personified objects, and is thus declined: amgwUv. rtmnL KOM. who who POfiS. whofie whofio Obj. whom whom 266. Who and whom are always, and whose oo- Dasionally used alone. Whose, like the possessive cases of personal pronouns, is generally joined to a noun as a modifier. Who told you sof From whom did you get the hookf Whose vmbreOa did he take f This is mine, whose is that f S66. Between who and which there is a distinction in meaning. Who asks a question in a genersd way; as. Who eaUs so loud f meaning who of all persons, Whdch inquires for a particular individusd from a group or class. Which (of the two) is the natwral ma/n And which the spirit t Who deciphers them f —Shakespeare. 367. Which is used in the nominative and ob- jective cases, either alone or as a modifier of a noun, for either number and for any gender. WJiich was it f Which of you told me 9 Which will you ?uwe 9 BTTMOLOGT. Ill Which hook did Tie cfwose f Which numbers did she select f The word wMoh comes from the Anglo-Saxon, Tvunlc, con- tracted from hnva-lic, wJiat4ike, of what kind 9 258. What may be used either alone or joined to a noun. When used alone, it is singular and neuter ; when used with a noun, the noun may be of any gender and either number. What does it matter f What do you want f Wherefore rejoice f JVhat conquest brings he home f What tributaries follow him to Borne 9 — Shakespeare. Wliat king, going to war agai/nst another king, sitteth not down fvrst omd consuZteth ?— Bible. 269. What is often used to introduce an ex- clamation ; as, What dignity, what beauty, in this change From miM to a/ngry, and from sad to gay t — Wordsworth. What is sometimes used as an interjection to ex- press surprise ; as. Eh I how! what! Captadn, did you write the letter then 9^ Sheridan. 260. Whether is equivalent to which of two? It is now generally used as an adverb. In older En- glish it occurs frequently as an interrogative pro- noun ; as. Whether of them twam did the wiU of Us father ?- Bible. 112 ENQLI8H GRA MMA R. Relative Pronouns. 261. Definition. — ^A relative pronoun is a pro- noun that relates to an antecedent and serves to connect clauses. The distinguishing mark of a relative pronoun is that it can not form the subject or the object of a simple sentence, but is em- ployed to introduce a clause. By some a relative pronoun is called a conjunctive pronoun, because it has the x>ower of a con- junction oa well as that of a pronoun. In the sentence. The dog dropped tlie hone, which then fell into the water, which is equivalent in meaning to cmd it. 262. The relative pronouns are who^ whichj that, what, with the compound forms whoso, whoever, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, what- soever. As and 'but are occasionally found as relative pronouns. 263. Who, which, and what were originally inter- rogative pronouns. Then they came to be used in- definitely in the sense of some person or thing, especially after the conjunctions if and as, as in the expression, As who should say, etc., meaning. As if some one should say. Finally, they came to be used as relatives. That, originally a demonstrative pro- noun, became a relative before any of the others. 264. Who and which are declined as follows: Singular and Hural. BingtUar and Flural, NoM. who which Poss. whose whose Obj. whom which That and what are not inflected to indicate case. ETYMOLOGY. 113 266« Who is now used only for persons, and in personification; which, for animals and things with- out life. That may be used for persons, animals, and things. The letter being folded tuas delivered to the squire, cmd by him delivered to the messenger, who tuaited withoiU.—8iB. Walter Scott. There is a vast nwmher of abswrd cmd mischievous fdUaoies, which pcbss readdly in the world for sense ar»d virtue, while in truth they tend only to fortify error and encourage crvme,-^ Sydney Smith. Blessed is the mom that walk&th not in the counsel of the wngodVy. — Bible. Wake, waket all ye that sleep. — Longfellow. The songs a/nd fables that are come frofm father to son. — Addison. 266. That is to be preferred to who and which in the following cases: 1. When the antecedent embraces both persons and things: The soldiers a/nd common that I sa/vo, 2. As a general rule, who or which is to be used when its clause introduces a new fact about the antecedent; that is to be preferred when the clause is dependent, and limits or defines the antecedent. A convenient test to decide whether it is better to use who or which, or that, is suggested by Dr. Abbott : ** When using the relative pronoun, use who and which when the meaning is and he, it, etc., for he, it, etc. In other cases use tha/t, if euphony allows" 114 BNGLISH GBAMMAB. I Tieard this from the inspector, who (and he) fieard it from the gv/ord ttuU traveled unth the train. Fetch me aU the books that He on the table, and also the pa/mphlets, which (a/nd those) you wiU find on the floor. This rule, it must be admitted, is not generally observed, even by the best modem authors. It was followed, however, up to the beginning of the present century; and there is a tendency among writers of the present day to retum'^to it be- cause of its clearness and convenience. It covers the si)ecific rules given by most grammarians to use that after an adjective in the superlative degree, etc. Dr. Abbott notes the following exceptions: 1. When the antecedent is already restricted by some ex- pression, e.g, by a possessive case, modem English uses who in- stead of that in a restrictive clause ; as. His friends from the dty, whom he was not expecting, called at his office. 2. If the relative is separated from its verb and from its antecedent, who or which is preferable to th^. There are many persons who, though unscrupulous, are cormnonly good-tempered, and who, if not strongly incited by self-interest, are ready, for the most part, to think of the interest of their neighbors. 3. If the antecedent is modified by that, the relative must not be that. Addison ridicules such language as. That remnark that I made yesterday is not that that I said that I regretted that I had made. 4. ITiat, as a relative, can not be preceded by a preposition, and hence, throws the preposition to the end of the clause. This is the rule that I adhere to is perfectly correct; but when the preposition has more than one syllable, and may be mistaken for an adverb, the construction sounds harsh. It is better to say. This is the ma^rk beyond which I jrnnped, than This is the mark that I jumped beyond. BTTMOLOGT. 115 5. After indefinite pronouns modern English prefers who. There a/re mam/y {otfiers, several, those) who cam, tesUfy, etc, 267. Whose is used for persons, for lower ani- mals, and even for things without life, and always to modify the meaning of a noun. On a rock, whose hav^hty brow. Frowns o'er old Conway's foammg tide, — Gray. How can we praise the verse whose music flows With solemn cadence and majestic close, Pv/re as the dew that filters throrigh the rose f — O. W. Holmes. It is more common, however, especially in prose, to substi- tute of which for whose when the antecedent denotes some- thing without life. Society .... has great reason to rejoice when a class, of which the infl/aence is moral and intellectual, rises to ascend- ency. — Macaulay. 268. Which is now used only for the lower ani- mals and things without life. Formerly it was used for persons, as in the Lord's Prayer: Our Father which art in Heaven. 269* Which is frequently used as an adjective; as. Which things are a/n allegory. — Bible. In this case, it refers back to a number of incidents already related, and modifies the word things. Occasionally, the antecedent is repeated for the sake of clearness. He offered no defense for the ridiculous fable of the pigeon; which pigeon (not which fable), on the contrary, he represented, etc. — Db QumoBY. 116 ENGLISH GRAM^IAR. 270* In Shakespeare, the which, used to distinguish be- tween two or more possible antecedents, is common. Tlie better pa/rt of vcUor is discretion; m the which better pa/rt I Xcwe saved my Ufe, 271. Wfiat is always neuter, and is used only in the nominative and objective causes. Its antecedent is never expressed. In meaning, it is equivalent to t?iat which or th^ thing which. NoioNATiVB Case : What is one man's meai is a/nother mam^s poison, Objectivb Case : Wh€U I ha/ve written I ha/oe written. The student must consider carefully in determining the case of wha;t. In the first sentence, the clause wha/t is one man*s meat is the subject of the second is, and What is the subject of the first is. In the second sentence, What I have written is a noun clause and the object of the second haA)e written. What is the object of the first ha/ve written. 21l1i» In older English we find the antecedent expressed, as iu the sentence. That what we ha/ve we prize not to the worth. —Shakespeare. S73. In poetry and elevated prose, what is occasionally found as an adjective: What time the splendor of the setting swn La/y hea/uMful on Snowdon^s sovereign brow. — Wordsworth 274. As is used as a relative pronoun after such and same: Natv/re ever faith fvZ %s To such €18 trust her foMhful/ness. Tea/rs, such as angels weep, bu/rst forth. — ^Milton. ETYMOLOGY. 117 376. The compounds whoeveVy whichever, what- ever ; whoso, whosoever, whichsoever, whatsoever, axe generally used, like what, without an antecedent. Whosoever is the only one declined: KoM. whosoever Poss. whosesoever Obj. whomsoever The forms with so are rarely used in modem English. These compounds all have an indefinite or general meaning. Whoso eats thereof forthwith attorns wisdom, — ^Milton. {Whoso = every one who.) I thdnk myself beholden whoever shows me my mistakes, — Looks. (Who&oer = no m,aMer who,) 276. The relative is sometimes omitted when it is the object of a transitive verb; as, The hook I pwrchased — The hook that I purchased. Had I hut served m,y Qod with half the zeal I served my kmg, Tie would not i/n mi/ne age Have left me naked to m,ine enemies. — Shakespeare. Here we must supply with which after zeal; but such a construction as that above is hardly allowable in modern English, except in poetry. In poetry the relative is sometimes omitted when it is the subject of a verb ; as, *Tis distance (that) lends enchcmt/ment to the viett;.— Campbell. 277. If the antecedent is a personal pronoun, it is often omitted; as, Who steals my purse, steals trash = He who, etc. 378. When who, which, and what are used in subordinate clauses, care must be taken to determine whether they are 118 diNGLIBH GBAMMAM. relatives, or whether they are interrogative pronouns. To de- termine this question in any given case, Professor Kushton sug- gests the following test ; " Tva^n the sentence into a question. If the dependent clause gives the answer to sxjLch a question, the pronoim is an inteiTogati/ve ; " as, I asked who was there. Question. — What did you askf Answer.— Who was there f They inquired what Tie was going to do. Question. — WTiat did they inquire? Answer.— TTTia^ was he going to do? 379. The person, number, and gander of a relative pronoun are the same as the person, number, and gender of its antecedent. 380. The antecedent may be a noun, a pronoun, a phrase, or a clause. We join ourselves to no party that does not carry the flag a/nd keep step to the music of the ZJnioTi.— Choate. To him who in the love of Natwre holds Commu/nion with her visible forms, she speaks A various la/nguage. — Bryant. We are hound to obey all the I>ivine cotnmands, which we can not do ^Mhout Divine aid. Homer is remarkably concise^ which renders him, lively and agreeable. — Blair's Rhetoric. Here the antecedents are party, him, to obey all the Divine commands, and the fact that Hom^r is concise. 381* Occasionally but is found as a relative pronoun. There is not a wife in the west cowntry, But has heard of the well of St. Keyne. — Southby. ETYMOLOGY, 119 382. Clauses introduced by relative pronouns are of various kinds : 1. Co-ordinate with the clause containing the antecedent, and with it, forming a compound sentence. A relative clause is of this kind when the relative pronoun means cmd he, it, etc., but he, it, etc.; as. The crow dropped the cheese, which (= and it) the fox immedmtely snapped up. Yesterday I met my old school-fellow, whom (- and him) I recognized at once. Although some authors regard sentences like the foregoing as complex, yet they are undoubtedly compound, and there is excellent authority for this view. 2. Adjective, when the relative clause is used to define, limit, or, in other words, to modify a noun or its equivalent. (For the use of who, which, and that in restrictive clauses, see § 266.) As, Have you ever heard of Ethan Allen, who captured Ticonderoga 9 The m,an that hath no music in himself is fit for treasons, stratagem,s, and spoils, 3. Noun. A relative clause used as a substitute for a noun is often introduced by what; as, Wliat the ignorant think of gram,m,ar is of no consequence. Here, WTiat the ignorant think of grammar is the subject of is. Within a relative clause, a parenthetical clause is sometimes introduced ; as. We met the Colonel a/nd his wife, who, we thought, were very agreeable people. This is equivalent to We met the Colonel a/nd Ms wife, and we thought they were very agreeable people. The sentence is compound, and the relative clause is a noun clause, object of the predicate verb thought, 283. In parsing an interrogative or a relative pronoun, state, Ic The antecedent. 2. The person, number, and gender. 8. The case. 4. The reason for the case: of what verb it is the subject, etc. 120 BN0LI8H GRAMMAR. Exercise 32. — In the following excerpts point out the clauses introduced by relative pronouns^ state whether they are noun or adjective clauses, and parse each of the relative pronouns : 1. There is no creature with which man has surrounded himself that seems so much hke a product of civilization, so much like the result of development in special lines and in special fields, as the honey-bee. — Burroughs, 2. Katrina Van Tassel was withal a little of a coquette, as might be perceived even in her dress, which was a mixture of ancient and modem fashions, as most suited to set off her charms,— Irving. 3. Who is the happy warrior? Who is he That every man in arms should wish to be? It is the generous spirit who, when brought Among the tasks of real life, hath wrought Upon the plan that pleased his bojrish thought. Whose high endeavors are an inward light That makes the path before him always bright; Who with a natural instinct to discern What knowledge can perform is diligent to learn; Abides by this resolve and stops not there. But makes his moral being his prime care. —Wbrdsiuorth. 4. What surprised me most was the sound of my own voice, which I had never before heard at a declamatory pitch, and which impressed me as belonging to some other person, who— and not myself — would be responsible for the speech : a prodigious consolation and encouragement under the circum- stances.— ^ati;^^orrie. QUESTIONS. Wherein do a i>er8onal pronoun and a relative pronoun agree? Wherein do they differ ? Wherein do an interrogative pronoun and a relative pronoun agree ? Wherein do they differ? When they are used in dependent clauses, how can you distinguish between who, which, and what as relatives and as inter- rogative pronouns? ETYMOLOGY. 121 Distingoisli the use of who^ wMch^ and tluU^ as regards the gender of the antecedent. "What is the general rule with regard to the use of the relative pro- noun in co-ordinate and restrictive clauses? Under what circumstances are who and which to be preferred to that in restrictive clauses? Stat^ with regard to each of the illustrative sentences in S S80, whether it is compound or complex, and give a reason in each case. Demonstrative Pronouns. 284. Definition.— A demonstrative pronuun is a pronoun used to point out that to whicii it refers. 385. The demonstrative pronouns are this with its plural tltese, and t?iat with its plural those. 286. Grammarians differ greatly about the classification of these words. Some call them pronouns; some, adjectives; some, adjective pronouns; and others, prcmomindl adjectives. In this book they will be called demonstrative pronouns when they stand alone, and adjectives when they are used to modify the meanings of nouns. Some grammarians include yon and yonder among demonstrative pronouns, but it is perhaps better to regard them as adjectives 387. Demonstrative pronouns are used under the following conditions: 1. When they introduce or specify some person or object, this referring to the nearer, that to the more distant. This is my book. Is that your cane f Are these yov/r gloves ? Those a/re my friends, ^ 2. When they have a backward reference and are equivalent to the one .... the other ; this referring 122 ENOLIBH QBAMMAR. to the latter of two things mentioned, that to the former. Some place thevr hUss in action, some in ease. Those caU it pleasure, and contentment these. — Pope. . . . reason raise o'er i/nstincl as you can In this 'Us God directs, in that His man. — Pope 3. When that or those is used to prevent the repetition of a preceding noun ; as, The castle of Sterling is such another as that of Edinburgh. —Smollett. The mercantile buildings of New York are finer tha/n those of London, 4. When this or that refers to a word, phrase, or clause going before ; as, He had great store of knowledge. This he used to the great- est possible adva/rUage. To be or not to be, that is the question. Indefinite Pronouns. 388. Definition. — An indefinite pronoun is a pro- noun that does not denote any particular object. 289. The indefinite pronouns are one, none, some, any, aught, naught, each, every, either, neither, other, else, sundry, several, certain, all, with various com- pounds. 390. Some of these words are used as pronouns ; others, as adjectives; most of them, in both ways. When used as pronouns, they are called indefinite ETYMOLOGY. 128 pronouns; when used to modify the meanings of nouns, they are adjectives. 391. One is simply the numeral one with derived meanings. It is used both as a pronoun and as an adjective. As a pronoun, it has a plural ones and a possessive case one^s. Its principal meanings are as follows : 1. As denoting people in general ; as, One can say to one^s friend the thdngs that stand in need of pa/rdon, and at the sa/me time he swre of it, — Pope. The reflexive forms one's self and oneself are used with the same meaning. 2. To avoid the repetition of a noun already used; as, You seem to he a close observer, sir. — Necessity has made me one. 3. As correlative with other j to distinguish two different persons; as, Two men went up into the Temple to pray ; the one a Pharisee, and the other a publicar, — Bible. 4. As equivalent to person, creature, or being; as. Take heed that ye despise not one of these little ones. — ^Beble. 293. Any one, some one, no one, each one, either one, neither one, every one, the one, etc., may be re- garded as compounds of one, and, in parsing, should be treated as single words. 393. None, derived from the Anglo-Saxon ne, not, and an, one, means strictly not one. It is used only 124 ENGLISH QBAMMAB. as a pronotin, and should be always singular, though occasionally it is found in good authors in the plural Its derived form no is used as an adjective. Heed not though none should caU thee /ofr.— Wordsworth. Terms of peace u)ere none vouchsafed, — ^MUiTON. Offier hope had she none. — ^Longfellow. She h/od no "bonnet on her head. — Dickens. 294. Some is used both as a pronoun and as an adjective. As a pronoun it is used both in the singular and in the plural In the singular it usually implies quantity. Of the grain, some was ripe and some uxis not. Some of his shiU he taught to me.— Sir Walter Soott. Some said one (Mng, a/nd some said a/nother. 295. Any is used as a pronoun and as an ad- jective. With a singular noun, it generally impUes quantity; with a plural noun, number. Used in a negative sentence, it excludes all. Who is here so base, thai wouM be a bondraa/nf If any^ speak; for Mm have I offended. — Shakespeare. He never had any influence. He has not received any tetters. 296. Aught, and the negative form naught, are equivalent respectively to anything and nothing, and are used as pronouns ; as, Nothing extenuate. Nor set down atight in malice. — Shakespeare. If naught in loveliness compare, With what thou a/rt to me. — ^Wordsworth. ETTMOLOCfT. 126 397. Eax^h and every are sometimes called dis- tributive pronouns, because they refer to the mem- bers of a class. Note the distinction in meaning: Each means all the individuals of a class taken separately : every means all the individuals of a class taken collectively. Each may refer to two, or to more than two ; evety always implies more than two. Each is used both as a pronoun and as an adjective ; every, as adjective only; as, Tha^ each who seems a sepa/rate whole shovM move his roimds, — ^Tennyson. Every soldier was on duty, except the cavalry. 398. The expressions each other, every other, no other, one another, etc., are generally regarded as compound indefinite pronouns; as, They did not speak to each other. I know no other. 399. Other is used as an adjective in such phrases as the other day, some other hook. It is a common error to substitute the adverb otherwise for other; as. He had no love for Uteratu/re, poetical or other, — not otherwise, 300. Used as an indefinite pronoun, other has a possessive other's and a plural others; as, How well I have performed my part^ let others judge. The other^s judgment is too severe, 301. Another is to be distinguished from the other. The latter means the second of two; the former, one of any number more than two. 126 ENOLISH OEAMMAE. 302. Either and neither^ sometimes called alter- native pronouns, mean respectively one of the two, and not one of the two. They are used both as pro- nouns and as adjectives, and have the possessive forms either^s and neither*s. Truth ma/y Ue on both aides, on either side, or on neither. — Carlyle. So parted they as, either^ 8 wa/y led. Neither^ 8 damn was just. Occasionally we find either used for each; as. On either side is level fen. — Crabbe. It is better to use each for one and other; either, for one or other; as, Each clavmed to he right; either might h. Warner, 6. The rocks under water took on the most exquisite shades — purple and malachite and brown ; the barnacles clung to them ; the long sea-weeds in half a dozen varieties, some in vivid colors, swept over them, flowing with the restless tide, like the long locks of a drowned woman's hair. — (7. D. Wa/m&r, 7. I sometimes sit and pity Noah ; but even he had this ad- vantage over all succeeding navigators, that, wherever he landed, he was sure to get no ill news from home. He should be canonized as the patron saint of newspaper correspondents, being the only man who ever had the very latest authentic in- telligence from everjrwhere. — LoweU. QUESTIONS. Whereiii do an adjective and an adverb agree? "Wherein do they differ t Give examples of each of the ways in which an adjective may be used. Form proper adjectives from Spainy Britain, Austria^ Canada^ Qreece^ Eaty^ Turhty^ aooUand^ UrtUmd^ Mexioo^ EoUand, Chrmany^ JSgypt* 140 ENQLIBH OBAMMAR. Hake sentenoes containing the words hundred^ thouttmd^ and mUUim^ used tn the plural Make sentences containing the expressions, UUle, a UttU^few^ a few. When should an be used? When should a be used? Oive the rule for the use of the indefinite article before a series of nouns. Make sentences illustrating the different uses of the definite article. Define each of the degrees of comparison. Distinguish between older and eider as to meaning. Oiye the rule for the use of the comparative followed by than^ and make a sentence to illustrate it. Give the nde for the use of the saperlative followed by qf^ and make a sentence to illustrate it. Point out the errors in the Unes from Milton quoted in 1 388, 336. Defdotion. — ^A verb is a word used to say- something about some person or thing. (Bead paragraph 21, and work Exercise 4, again.) The word that stands for the person or thing about which something is said, is a noun or a pronoun in the nominative case, and is called, in analysis, the sulyect nov/n or the subject proruywn. As has already been stated, a phrase or a clause may take the plax^ of a noun. It is often convenient to speak of a subject noun, pronoun, phra^se, or clause, when considered apart from modifiers, simply as the sut^ect of the verb. A verb may tell us with regard to that about which some- thing is said that it does something, as, The swrh irises; or that it is in some state, as. My lady sleeps; or that it has something done to it, as. The prize is won* 337. With regard to their subjects, grammarians distinguish personal and impersonal verbs. A personal verb is a verb that has a determinate subject; Edison invented the phonograph. What is yov/r aUment? It is bronchtUa, ETYMOLOGY. 141 An impersonal verb has no determinate subject. The sub- ject, not clearly present to the mind of the speaker, is indicated by the neuter pronoun it; as, It rains. It snows. Sow da/rh it grows t How fares it with youf Me lists = it pleases me, and Methinhs = it seems to me, are impersonal verbs. (See §23 1.) Classes of Verbs. 338. According to their uses in sentences, verbs are divided into two great classes: Transitive and Intransitive. 339. Definition. — A transitive verb is a verb ex- pressing action that is received by some person or thing: A rolling stone gathers no moss. A soft cmswer tumeth away wrath.— Bibix, Vamty Fa/ir was written by Thackeray, The word tra/nsiti/ve comes from the Latin tram^rey to pass over. The action is supposed to pass from the agent or actor to the person or thing acted upon. The person or thing acted upon is expressed, when the verb is in the active voice (see 353), by a noun or a pronoun in the objective case, called, in analysis, the object nown or pronoim. A phrase or clause may take the place of a noun. Some verbs appear to take two objects ; as, J told him the news. Here, news is the object and Mm is the equivalent of an adverbial phrase, to Mm, and may be parsed as an adverbial objective. 340. Definition. — ^An intransitive verb is a verb expressing being or state, or action not received by any person or thing: Water is a fMd. The babe sleeps. The swn shines. 142 ENGLI8H OBAMMAB. 341. A verb that is usually transitive may be- come intransitive; and an intransitive verb, tran- sitive : 1. Some verbs are used both transitively and intransitively ; as, TransUive, IntransUive. The hoy flies a kite. The eagle flies. The driver walked his horse. T7ie man walked. The girl ran a needle vnto her The horse ran a/uxvy. finger. He speaks ma/ny languages. He speaks slowly. In all cases, the sense must determine whether the verb is transitive or intransitive. 2. A verb, otherwise transitive, becomes intransitive when the action is done to the agent, and a reflexive pronoun is omitted; as. Transitive. IntransUive. The sea broke the ship to The sea broke (itself) on the pieces. rocks. The cook turns the meat. The needle turns (itself) to the pole. The fishermen spread their The clouds spread (them- nets in the su/n. selves) over the sky. 3. Some verbs, usually transitive, may be made intransitive by adding predicate adjectives ; as, Transitive. Intransitive. The butcher cuts the meat. The meat cuts tough. The hoy is editing the cakes. The cakes eal short a/nd crisp. She tastes the milk. The milk tastes sour. 4. A verb, usually intransitive, may bo made transitive by the addition of a preposition, either separately or in composi- tion; as. Intransitive. Transitive. He laughed. He laughed at me. He looked. He overlooked the work. ETTMOLOQT. 143 5. Some verbs, usually intransitive, become transitive, when followed by nouns of like meaning; as, trUraniUite. TransiUte, He died. He died the death of the righteous. She sleeps. She sleeps the sleep of the mnocent. The hoy ran. The hoy ran a race. 342. Some verbs appear to be used transitively, when such is not the case ; as in the sentence, He ra/n a mile. Here mile is not the object of ra/riy but an adverbial objective, or part of an adverbial phrase, a preposition being understood: He rem for a mdle. 343. Some intransitive verbs may form the pred- icates of sentences without the help of any other word or words ; as, T?ie hdhy creeps. The rose blooms. 344. Some other intransitive verbs can not form the predicates of sentences without the addition of a predicate complement. Such verbs are called in- complete intransitives. (See §49.) The complement may be a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, a phrase, or a clause. 345. Incomplete intransitive verbs may express: 1. The identity of two x>ersons or things. I am the author of the hook. He is my brother. 2. The assertion that a quality belongs to a x)erson or thing; €Md is hea/vy. The prisoner is guilty. 8. A presumed identity ; as. He seems, looks, heoomes, wealthy. He seems, looks, becomes, a rich man. 144 BNQLIBE 9RAMMAE. 346. In all cases where a verb takes after it an adjective that modifies the subject, or a noun or pronoun denoting the same person or thing as the subject, it is an incomplete in- transitive verb; as, The rose smells sweet. The miUc tcistes 8(ywr, 347. Some verbs in the passive voice (see 354) are used as incomplete intransitives ; as, He WHS considered a genUeman. He was elected PreMdenU 348* Some grammarians call an incomplete intransitive verb a copula, because it couples, so to speak, two parts of speech. The complemerU is also called the attribute, INFIiEOTIONS. 349. Since the verb is the part of speech used to say something about some person or thing, it is evident that the assertion may be made under vari- ous conditions as to the actor and the receiver of the action, the intention of the speaker, the time re- ferred to, the number of persons or things con- cerned, and the person (grammatical) of the subject. 350. Verbs are inflected to express these various conditions or relations, which are called respectively voice, mode, tense, number, and person. These are sometimes spoken of as the properties of the verb. Few of these inflections are true inflections. Most of them are made by the use of helping or a/uayUiary verbs; that is, verbs that drop their own meaning for the time being, and aid in expressing the meaning of the principal verb. STTMOLOGT. 146 Voice. 851, Definition.— Voice is the form of a transi- tive verb that shows whether the subject denotes the actor or the receiver of the action. « 352. Only transitive verbs are inflected for voice. They have two voices — ^the active and the passive. 353. Definition. — ^A transitive verb is in the act- ive voice when its subject denotes the doer of the action. CkBacvr defeated JPompey. Here CoMO/ry the subject of the verb de>fe, though placed before the infinitive when used alone, as, to have, to love, to speak, is not a part ol the verb, and is generally omitted after the verbs may, cam, shaU, Witt, m,ust, let, da/re, do, hid, vnake, see, hea/r, feel, need, etc.; as, You may come. He dared not attempt the jowmey. You make me think iU of you. 367. The infinitive mode of a transitive verb re- tains the function of governing a noun in the ob- jective case, and then becomes part of a phrase ; as, I Uke to hear good m,vsic. 368. A verb in the infinitive mode may be used for various purposes in a sentence : 1. As a noun phrase forming the subject. To dimh steep hiUs requdres slow pace at first, — Shakespeabe. 2. As a noun phrase forming the object of a verb. J Wee to walk. 8. As a noun phrase forming the complement of a verb. To see is to believe. ( L6t ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 4. As part of a noun phrase used as the object of a verb. The teacher told her achdla/rs to aing. In this construction the noun or pronoun that precedes the infinitive, is said to be its subject, and is parsed ba in the ob- jective case. (See § 195.) 5. As an adverbial phrase modifying the mean- ing of a verb, an adverb, or an adjective. Tfie sower went forth to 8ow. I am glad to hear this. In this construction the infinitive is, by some grammarians, c€tlled the gerundial infinitive. 6. As an adjective phrase. Water to drink is scarce. 7. As an adjective phrase formihg the comple- ment of a verb. TTie governor's authority is to he supported. 369. The infinitive has two forms : as, to sit and to have sat; and, in the case of transitive verbs, has forms for both the active and the passive voice : as, to lovCj to be loved; to have loved, to have been loved. Exercise 89. — CUve the mode of each verb printed m italics: 1. The tear-drop who can bla/rne, Though it dim the veteran's aim? 2. Eat lest ye famt. 3. Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish. BTTMOLOGT. 163 4. Truth from his lips prevaMed with double sway. And fools, who ca/me to scoff, remmned to pray. — QiMsrmth, 5. Hence in a season of cahn weather. Though inland far we &e, Our souls have sight of that immortal sea Which brought us hither. — Wordsworth, Exercise 40. — Pick out the verbs in the' infinitwe mode, and tell how each is used: 1. To obey is better than to be punished. 2. It is useless to inquire. 3. The mother rejoiced to hear of her son's success. 4. I am sorry to hear it. .6. The Colonel ordered the soldiers to march. 6. It is a sin to speak deceitfully. 7. The children had a long lesson to learn. 8. To hesitate is to be lost. 9. To know what is best to do, and how best to do it, is wisdom. 10. I tried to remember what I h£ui read about encounters with bears. — G. D. Wam&r, 11. To rifle a caravan is a crime, though to steal a continent is a glory. 12. That fellow seems to me to possess but one idea, and that is a wrong one. — 8, Johnson, 13. Foreigners do not feel easy in America, because there are no peasants and underlings here to be humble to theim,—L(yweU, 14. I tried to think what is the best way to kill a bear with a gun, when you are not near enough to club him with the stock. — C, D. Wa/mer, 15. The foot is arched longitudinally and transversely, so as to give it elasticity, and thus break the sudden shock when the weight of the body is thrown upon it. — O. W, Holmes, 16. Unpracticed he to fawn, or seek for power. By doctrines fashioned to the varying hour ; Far other aims his heart had learned to prize. More skilled to raise the wretched than to rise. —QoldimUh. 164 WSfGLiaB GRAMMAR. 17. Modem civilization offers no such test to the temper and to personal appefiui'ance as this early, preparation to meet the inspection of society after a night in the stuffy and luxuriously upholstered tombs of a sleeping-car. — (7. D. Wa/mer. Verbals. 370. There are two forms of the verb that are called verbals. They are the gerund and the par- ticiple. THE GERUND. 371. The gerund, or, as it is often called, the verbal noun, is formed by adding ing to the simple form of the verb, and is almost similar to the in- finitive mode in meaning. 372. Definition. — ^A gerund is a verbal used as a noun. The word gerund comes from the Latin gerere, to carry, and is so called because the meaning of the verb is ca/rried on be- yond the modes. 373. The gerund has some of the functions of both noun and verb. It is a noun in that it may be the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb or of a preposition; it belongs to the verb because it is modified by adverbs and adverbial phrases, and, when derived from .a transitive verb, governs a noun or pronoun in the objective case. 374. The following are examples of its use: 1. As the subject, or as the complement of a verb. Seeing is believing. Walking is a healthy exercise, IMng good is the onl/y certaml/y happy action of a ma/rCs Ufe. BTYMOLOQT. 156 2. As the object of a verb or of a preposition. Johm, leaoThs dratving. True worth is m being ^ not seeming , In doing each day that goes by Some Utile good, not m dreaming Of great thdngs to do by a/nd by, 375. The gerunds of ?iave and be aid in forming compound gerunds. JSe is consdoibs of ha/ving done a good action. Being trusted makes us honorable, 376* We find the gerund used in such forms as Chgovng, OrmUhmg; as, ** Fm going a-milking, sir" she sa4d. In the days of Noah, while the ark was Or^reparing. — ^Biblb. Simon Peter said wnto them, " I go Orfishing^^—BiBix, The a in these expressions is not the article, but an old preposition, meaning in or on, which governs the gerund in the objective case. The preposition is probably omitted in the seemingly passive use of the gerund: Th>e house is now building. 377« We find the gerund also in composition with a noun ; as, walkmg-stick = a stick for walking ; articiple and an adjective agree? In what respect do they differ? Explain the idiom, She goes a-milking. Give examples of the Tgerund in composition. Why is the participle so called? Give examples of the two forms of the ];>articiple. Define tense. What are the three natural divisions of time? What other considerations enter into the classification of tenses? Enumerate the different uses of the present indefinite tense, and give one example of each< What is the difference in meaning between / wrote and / was toritingf Between / Tuive written and / had torittenf Between / shall write and / shall have written f What is meant by strong and weak verbs? What are the other names for these dasses of verbs? Give ten examples of each. BTTMOLOQT. 171 How are the perfect tenses formed? The progressive tenses r The future tenses? Give examples of each. What is the original meaning of ahaUf Of wUif What does loUl express in the/r<9^ person f In the second and third persons f What does shaU express in the first person? In the second and third persons? Make sentences con- taining shdU and will in each of the persons. What determines the number and person of a verb? What are the inflections that mark number and person? Conjugation op the Verb. 412. By arranging in an orderly way the verb forms that in the various modes and tenses corre- spond to the different persons and numbers of sub- ject nouns and pronouns, we have what is called conjugation. 4J.3. The present indicative or infinitive, and the past indicative, of any verb, together with its pres- ent and past participles, are called its principal parts, since one of these parts is found in each of the various forms of that verb. 4J.4. A verb that wants any of these principal parts is a defective verb; if any one of these four has two diflferent forms, the verb is a redundant verb, 415. A verb is called a notional verb when it re- tains its full meaning ; as, / write, I will (decide) that you should go. A verb is called an auxiliary verb when it loses its full meaning, and serves merely to help in ex- pressing the meaning of a notional verb; as. He will go. In the sentence, He tvUl go, tuiH does not mean that he decides to go. It merely expresses futurity. In, I have bought 172 ENQLian GRAMMAR. the house, ha/oe loses the meaning of possess and is a mere sign of the present perfect tense. The auxiliary verbs are shall, wiU^ hovoe, he, do, ma/y. Conjugation of Auxiliary Verbs. 416. SHALL AND WILL. Indicative Mode. Singular, pbbssnt tsnsb. FluraL 1. - ( shall, will, 1. ^«i^- 2. _- ( Shalt, 2. ^»IS!' 3. He .^' Will, 3. They^^^' ^ will. PAST TBNBB. Singuiar. Mural, 1. _ j should, ( would. 1. YfQ i should, ( would. 2. __ ( shouldst, Thou^ ,, . ( wouldst, 2. _ I should, ( would. 3. ^^ c should, ( would. 3. j should, ( would. 8haU fiuid tuiU, followed by the infinitive without to, form the future tenses in the indicative mode. Should and vxmld, though originally past in meaning, are now used to form the future tenses of the subjunctive mode, particularly when the verb is not preceded by one of the con- junctions expressing a condition, if, though, etc (See § 405.) When shovM and wovM are used to state faults, they are notional verbs in the indicative mode and are followed by a de- pendent infinitive ; as, I should like to see you. They would go in batJwng. Will is also used as a notional verb in the sense of choose^ determine. It is then conjugated regularly. 417. HA.VE. PBB8. PAST. PBB8. PART. PAflTPABT Pbin. Pabts: Have. Had. Having. Had. ETTMOLOGT. 173 Indicative Mode. PBB8. TBBHB. 1. I have, 2. Thou hast, 3. He has, or hath. Ftural, 1. We have, 2. You have, 3. They have. PAST TENBB. Singular, MumiL 1. I had, 1. We had, 2. Thou hadst, 2. You had, 3. He had, 3. They had. Subjunctive Mode. (Generally used after if^ tfuU^ though^ etc.) PBES. TBNSB. /snngular. Hural, 1. I have, 1. We have, 2. Thou have, 2. You have, 3. He have, 3. They have. Imperative Mode. PBES. TBNBE. PAST TENSB. Singular, HurcH, 1. I had, 1. We had, 2. Thou had, 2. You had, 3. He had, 3. They had. Infinitive Mode. FBBS. TENfflB. FEBFEOT TEITBB. Singular, Hural. 2. Have (thou). 2. Have (you or ye). To have. To have had. PRESENT. Participle: Having. Gerund : Having. PAST. Had. PEBFEOT. Having had. Having had. The verb tuwe is both notional and auxiliary. As a notional verb, meaning possess, hold, keep, it is found in all the modes and tenses. As an auxihary verb, its present tense is used to form the present perfect tenses of other verbs, as, He has succeeded; its past tense, to form the past perfect tenses, as, He had sue- ceeded; its future indefinite tense, to form the future perfect tenses, as, He tvUl have succeeded; its present infinitive, to form the pert^ct infinitive, as, To have succeeded; and its pres- ent participle, to form the perfect participle and gerund, as, Having succeeded. When it is used as an auxiliary, the original sense of possessing no longer appears. Hast is a contraction for ha/uest; had, for haA)ed; has and hath, for Jia/ves and ?ia/veth. 174 mQIMB QSAMMAB. 418. BE. . FBS8BNT. PAST. PBB8. PABT. PAST PABT. Pbin. Parts: Be, Was. Being, Been. Indioahye Mods. PBB8BKT TBN8B. Singular. Hural, 1. I am, 1. "We are, 2. Thou art, 2. You are, 3. He is, 3. They are. PAST TKNBB. Sinffular, PluraL 1. I was, 1. We were, 2. Thou wast, 2. You were, 3. He was, 3. They were. FRBSBNT PBSFEOT TBNSB. Sinffular. Plural. 1. I have been, 1. We have been, 2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been, 3. He has been, 3. They have been. PAST PBBFBOT TBNSB. Singular. Plural, 1. I had been, 1. We had been, 2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been, 3. He had been, 3. They had been. FUTUBB TBN8B. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall be, 1. We shall be, 2. Thou wilt be, 2. You will be, 3. He will be, 3. They will be ; or, 1. I will be, 1. We will be, 2. Thou shalt be, 2. You shall be, 3. He shall be, 3. They shall be. FUTUBB PBBFBOT TBNSB. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 2. Thou wilt have been, 2. You will have been, 3. He will have been, 3. They will have been; or, 1. I will have been, 1. We will have been, 2. Thou shalt have been, 2. You shall have been, 3. He shiall have been, 3. They shall have been. ETYMOLOGY. 176 Subjunctive Mode. (Generally used after \f^ that^ though^ etc.) VBBSENT TBN8B. Singykar. Plural. 1. I be, 1. We be, 2. Thou be, 2. You be, 3. He be, 3. They be. FAST TENSE. Singular, JPhiraL 1. I were, 1. We were, 2. Thou wert, 2. You were, 3. He were, 3. They were. PBESENT PEBFBOT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I have been, 1. We have been, 2. Thou have been, 2. You have been, 3. He have been, 3. They have been. PAST PEBFEOT TENSE. The same in form as in the indicative mode. FUTUBB TENSE. Singular, Plural, (Should ) i^^'^^l'^lbe ^- -^ 1 would S^' ^- ^® Iwouldf"^' «• '^'^'^ Iwo,^'^*} '^' ^- ^"^^ IwouU^f '^• FUTUBE PEBFEOT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I ] uid [ ^*^® been, 1. We j A have been, 2. Thou j - , Y have been, 2. You j |- have been, 3- °^ 1 woijd ( *^^® ^''' ^- "^^y 1 woiid } ^""^ ^"^ Ikpebativs Mods. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 2. Be (thou). 2. Be (you or ye). iNFiNinvB Mode. PBESENT TENSE. PEBFEOT TENSE. To be. T or 3. They J would Singular, 1. I should 2. Thou wouldst 3. He would FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. AOnVB YOIOX. " have seen. Flural. 1. We "j should ' 2. You 1- or " have seen. 3. They J would , Singular. 1. I should 2. Thou wouldst 3. He would J PASBIYX YOIOB. Flural. 1 have been seen, 1. We 2. You 3. They^ ^^ f seen, would J Singular. 2. See (thou). 2. Be (thou) ^een. IMPERATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. AOTTYX YOIOB. Flural. 2. See (ye or you). FAS8IYX YOIOB. Flural. 2. Be (ye or you) seen. i 184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. INFINITIVE MODE. AOnYB YOIOB. PAflSIVE TOIOK. Pbesknt Tenbe : To see. To be seen. Pbes. Pebf. Tense : To have seen. To have been seen. VERBALS. PARTICIPLES. AonvB TOioB. PAaanrx yoigb. Pbesent : Seeing. - Being seen. Past : Seen. Pebfeot: Having seen. Having been seen. GEHUKDS. Pbebbnt: Seeing. Being seen. Pebfeot: Having seen Having been seen. Exercise 47. — Write the emphatic form of the present and past tenses, indicative mx)de, of see. Write the interrogative forms of the tenses of the indicative mode. Write the progressive forms of the tenses, both active and passive voice, wherever possible, in the interrogative and affirmative forms. Write the tenses of the indicative mode, active and passive voices, as they would be vsed in negative sentences. 433. Some authors use the verbs may, can, and micst, together with the past tense of imll and sfiall, as auxiliaries with which to form for other verbs what is called the potential mode. For teachers that prefer to retain this so-called mode, its conjugation for the verb lie (to recline) is given below. ETTMOLOOT. 185 Potential Mode. PBB8BNT TENSB. Singular. Fiural, 1. I may, can, must lie, 2. Thou mayst, canst, must lie, 3. He may, can, must lie. 1. We may, can, must lie, 2. You may, can, must lie, 3. They may, can, must lie. PAST TBN8B. SingtUctr. 1. I might, could, would, should lie, 2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, shouldst lie, 3. He might, could, would, should He. Plural. 1. "We might, could, would, should he, 2. You might, could, would, should lie, 3. They might, could, would, should lie. PRBSBNT PEBFBOT TBNSB. Singular. 1. I may, can, must have lain, 2. Thou mayst, canst, must have lain, 3. He may, can, must have lain. Fkiral, 1. We may, can, must have lain, 2. You may, can, must have lain, 3. They may, can, must have lain. PAST PBBFEOT TENSB. Singular. 1. I might, could, would, should have lain, 2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, shouldst have lain, 3. He might, could, would, should have lain. Plural. 1. We might, could, would, should have lain, 2. You might, could, would, should have lain, 3. They might, could, would, should have lain. The highest authorities on English grammar, such as Maetz- ner, Whitney, Bain, and Morris, are now agreed in rejecting i 186 EN^LIBR &RAMMAB. the so-called potential mode. I may go may express a state- ment of fact, in which case may is in the indicative mode ; or a condition or supposition, in which case m• borne beat j beaten, (beat began begim bent, R. bent, R. bereft, R. bereft, R. besought besought Pre8, Bet Bless Bid Bind Bite Bleed Blow Break Breed Bring Build Burn Burst Buy Can Cast JPast. bet, R. blest, R. bid, bade bound bit bled blew ^ broke, brake bred brought built, R. burnt, R. burst bought could cast Fast P. bet, R. blest, R. bidden, bid bound bitten, bit bled blown (•broken bred brought built, R. burnt, R. burst bought cast BTTMOLOe^T. 187 xTVf> ISut. HutP. PrtSt PaaL FattF. Catch caught caught Gird girt, R. girt, R. Ohide chid chidden, • chid Give Go gave went given gone Choose chose chosen Grave graved graven, R. Cleave, - itospOt,) ' clove, R cleft . clave cloven, cleft Grind Grow Hang ground gi-ew hung, R. ground grown hung Cling clung chmg Have had had Clothe clad, R. clad, R. Hear heard heard Come came come Heave hove, R. hove, R. Cost cost cost Hew hewed hewn, R. Creep crept crept Hide hid hidden, hid Crow crew, R. crowed Hit hit hit Cut Dare cut durst, R. cut dared Hold held held, holden Deal dealt dealt, R. Hurt hurt hurt Dig dug, R. dug, R. K.eep kept kept Do did done Kneel knelt, R. knelt, R Draw drew drawn Knit knit, R. knit, R. Dream dreamt, R . dreamt, R. Know knew known Dress drest, R. drest, R. Tjade laded laden, R Drink drank (drank, (drunk Lay Lead laid led laid led Drive drove driven Lean leant, R. leant, R. Dwell dwelt, R. dwelt, R. Leap leapt, R. leapt, R. Eat ate eaten Leave left left Fall fell fallen Lend lent lent Feed fed fed Let let let Feel felt felt Lie (fwftiM) lay lain Fight fought fought Light Ht,R. m, R. Find foimd found Lose lost lost Flee fled fled Make made made Fling flung flung May might Fly flew flown Mean meant meant Forsake forsook forsaken Meet met met Freeze froze frozen Mow mowed mown, R. Get got got, gotten Pay paid paid Gild gilt. R. gilt, R. 188 BlfOLiaS ORAMMAlt, Pen, Put Quit Bap Bead Bend Bid Bide Bing Bise Bive Bun Saw Say See Seek Seethe SeU Send Set Shake Shall Shape Shave Shear Shed Shine Shoe Shoot Show" Shred Shrink Shut Sing Fnui, PattP. pent, B. pent, B. put quit, B. rapt, B. rSad rent rid rode J rang, Irung rose rived ran sawed said saw sought seethed sold sent set shook should shaped shaved sheared shed shone, B. shod - shot showed shred ^ shrunk, shrcmk shut J sang, \av/ng \ put quit, B. rapt, B. r6ad rent rid ridden rung risen riven, B. run sawn, B. said seen sought sodden, B. sold sent set shaken shapen, B. shaven, B. shorn, B. shed shone, B. shod shot shown, B. shred ^ shrunk, shrwriken shut } sung Sink Sit Slay Sleep SUde Sling Slink SUt Smite Sow Speak Speed Spend SpiU Spin Spit SpHt Spread Spring Stand Stave Stay Steal Stick Sting Stride String Strive Strew Pott. (sank I sunk sat slew slept sUd slung slimk sUt smote Piut.P. jsimk sat slain slept j slidden, |sHd slung slunk sUt, B. J smitten, smU sown, B. [•spoken sowed j spoke, {spake sped sped spent spent spilt, B. spilt, B. spun, span spun spit, spat spit split spread sprang stood j staved, 1 stove ^ staid, stayed stole stuck stung strode Strike struck strung strove strewed split spread sprung stood J staved, 1 stove (staid, 1 stayed stolen stuck stung stridden, ( struck, ( stricken strung striven strown, B « ETYMOLOGY. 189 XrVi* Past, Pott P. Prw. PomL PwtP, Swear Sweat j swore, (swa/re sweat >• sworn sweat, R. Thrust Tread thrust trod, thrust j trodden, (trod Sweep swept swept Wax waxed waxen, R. Swell swelled swollen, R. Wear wore worn Swim (swam, \su)um^ vswum Weave Weep wove wept woven wept Swing swung swung Wet wet, R. wet, R. Take, took t)aken Whet whet, R. whet, R. Teach taught taught Will would Tear tore, ta/n J torn Win won won Tell told told Wind wound, R. wound Think thought thought Work wrought, R wrought, R Thrive j thrived, {th/rove |- thriven, R. Wring Write wrung wrote wrung written Throw threw thrown Parsing the Verb. 435* The verb is parsed by 1. Telling whether it is regular or irregular, and why. 2. Q-iving its principal parts. 8. Telling whether it is transitive or intransitive ; and, if transitive, stating its object, and its voice. 4. Stating its mode, tense, number, and person; and the reason in each case. Exercise 48. — Parse the verbs in the following selections : 1. The bird built its nest in an old apple tree. Model. — Built is an irregular verb, because it does not form its past tense and past participle by adding d or ed to the present. Principal parts, — present, bwild: past, built; present par- ticiple, btiiMing; past participle, bvdlt. Transitive, because it has nest for its object. 190 ENBLIBH GBAMMAE. ActiTe Toice, because its subject denotes the doer of the action. Indicative mode, — it simply states a fact; past tense, — ^it de- notes past action ; third person, singular number, because its sub- ject bird is third person, singular. In practice, however, it is sufficient to pcirse as follows: An irregular, transitive verb, active voice,, indicative mode, and third person singular, because its subject bird is third person singular. 2. But a cunning man was the cobbler; He could call the birds from the trees, Charm the black snake out of the ledges. And bring back the swarming bees. — Whitider. 3. Ailie stipped up on a seat, and laid herself on the table, as her friend the surgeon told her; arranged herself, gave a rapid look at James, shut her eyes, rested herself on me, and took my hand. The operation was at once begun ; it was neces- sarily slow ; and chlorof orm^ne of Qod's best gifts to his suf- fering children — ^was then unknown. — Dr, Jbh/n Brown, 4. And if we do but watch the hour, There never yet was human power That could evade, if unforgiven. The patient search and vigil long Of him that treasures up a wrong. — Byron. 5. A male bird brought to his box a large, fine goose feather, which is a great find for a sparrow, and much coveted. After he had deposited his prize and chattered his gratulations over it, he went away in quest of his mate. His next-door neighbor, a female bird, seeing her chance, quickly slipped in and seized the feather, — and here ^^he wit of the bird came out, for instead of carrying it into her own box, she fiew with it to a near tree, and hid it in a fork of the branches, then went home, and when her neighbor returned with his mate, was in- nocently employed about her own affairs. The proud male, finding his feather gone, came out of his box in a high state of excitement, and, with wrath in his manner and accusation, on his tongue, rushed into the cot of the female. Not finding his goods and chattels there as he had expected, ho stormed ; BTTMOLOOT. 191 around awhile, abusing everybody in general, and his neighbor in particular, and then went away as if to repair the loss. As soon a& he was out of sight, the shrewd thief went and brought the feather home, and lined her own domicile with it. — Jofrn Bwrroughs 6. I do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea-shore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble, or a prettier shell than ordinary, while the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me. — 8vr Isaac N&wton, THE ADVEBB. 436. Definition. — ^An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. (Bead again paragraphs 23-27, and work Exercise 4.) Classes. 437. According to their functions in the sen- tence, adverbs are of three classes: 1. Simple ad- verbs; 2. Interrogative adverbs; 8. Conjunctive ad- verbs. 438. A simple adverb modifies the meaning of the word with which it is used; as. But W6 steoidfcLgUy gazed on the face of the dead. And we bitterly thought of the morrow, — Wolf. Though the mills of Ghd grind slowly Yet they grind exceeding small. — H. W. Longfellow. Sxtremss of fortune, a/re true wisdom* s test, And he's of men most wise who hears them best, 439. An interrogative adverb is an adverb used to ask a question ; as, 192 BNGUSH GRAMMAR. When shall we three meet aga/vn f — Shaksspbabb. Where are the pure, whom thou wouldst choose to love thee f —A. H. Clouoh. Why crisp the waters blue f—O, W. Holmes. 440, A conjunctive adverb is an adverb that modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, in a subordinate clause, and also connects that clause with the principal clause. In the sentence, Spring is the time when the swaMows come, wherh modifies the meaning of the verb come and connects an adjective clause with the noun time. In the sentence, Qo where glory waits thee, where modifies the meaning of the verb waits and connects an adverbicd clause with the verb go. There is generally some demonstrative word expressed or understood that stands to a conjunctive adverb in a relation similar to that in which the antecedent stands to a relative pronoun; as, There, where a few torn shrubs the place dis- close; Come (then) when you are ready. The following words are conjunctive adverbs: when whence whereby whereat where why wherefore while as wherein whereon whenever 441. Adverbs may be classified according to their meanings as follows: 1. Adverbs of place, answering to the question (a) where f (6) whither ? (c) whence ? as, (a) here^ there, a/nywhere, yonder, etc.; (6) uither, thither, backward, etc.; (c) hence, thence, etc. 2. Adverbs of time, answering to the question when f as, now, to-day, yesterday, to-morrow, hy a/nd by, still, again, then, atterward. etc. BTTMOLOQT. 193 8. Adverbs of number; as, once^ twice, thrice; first, secondly, thirdly. 4. Adverbs of manner; as, how, well, ill, hadly, alovd, so, thus, 6. Adverbs of degree ; as, very, too, almost, quite, much, little, no, more, most, less, least, and t?ie before an adjective in the comparative degree. 6. Adverbs of cause ; as, why, wherefore, whence. 7. Adverbs of assertion and denial ; as, yes, yea, aye, nay, no, not. The classification of adverbs according to meaning is given, not to be learned by rote, but as an aid in parsing. 442, When the is used before an adjective in the compar- ative degree, as, the more the merrier, it is not the definite article but an adverb. In this use it is derived from an Anglo- Saxon case of the demonstrative that, meaning by so mueh. 44:3» Yes and «o, when standing alone in reply to questions, are not really adverbs. They are, in fact, the equivalents of sentences, and axe more nearly akin to interjections. 444. Many adverbs are composed of two or more words ; as, from above, one by one, now a/nd then, ever and anon, and the like. These may be called phrase adverbs. 445. It can not be impressed too strongly or too frequently on the student, that the function which a word discharges in a sentence determines the part of speech to which it belongs : 1. Words that are ordinarily nornis are sometimes used as adverbs; as in the expressions. Stone dead. Se cares not a cent. 194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 2. Words that are ordinarily adjectives sometimes become adverbs; as, He speaks loud. He rwna fast. The reason is that in olden times adverbs were formed from adjectives by adding e; as, bright, brighte. In modem English the e has been dropped in these cases, and no other suffix sub- stituted. 3. Words that are usuadly adverbs occasionally become nouns; as, Now (= the present time) is the accepted tmie, now is the day of sdlvaticyn. He camfie from abrond, 4. Words that are usuadly adverbs become adjectives : (a) s& modifiers; (b) as predicate complements. (a) Drink no longer wat&r, but use a Uttte wvne, for thy stomach*s sake, amd t?i4ne often infvrmUies, — ^Bible. Even Homer sometimes nods. This example some grammarians would explain by supply- mg an ellipsis : Evem, (so careful a poet as) Homer sometimes nods, (b) He is here. The child is away. In the last example (b) here and oAJoa/y are usuadly parsed as adverbs. But a little consideration will show that the verb to be, when it is merely a copula (see § 348), can not take a modifier. In the examples given above, the verb serves simply to assert locality. Hence, here and away may be parsed as O/dAX^bs used as predicate adjectives. 5. The word as is used as a relative pronoun, a£< an adverb, as a subordinate conjunction, and as a preposition. In the sentence. Such as I h>a/oe I give, as is a relative pronoun. In the sentence, He is as clever €ls his brother, the first as is an adverb of degree ; the second as is a conjunctive adverb. In the sentence, As I am yowr subordinate I tmU obey you, as (= becauM) is a subordinate conjunction. (See § 463*) ETTMOLOGT. 195 In the sentence. As the clergyman was retwrmng from ch/u/rch, he met Ms daughters, as is an adverb of time. In the sentence, Buskfi/ii is greatest as a/n art critic, as is a preposition. 44:6. Most adverbs of manner and degree admit of comparison: 1. Adverbs ending in ly are generally compared by pre- fixing m^ore and most; as, P08UiV«. keenly heauMfuUy Comparative. mare keenly more bea/utifidly Superlative. most keenly most beautifully 2. Some adverbs are compared by adding the suffixes er and est; as, J^fsiUve. Comparative. £hq)eriaUve. fast faster fastest soon sooner soonest often oftener oftenest S. The following adverbs are either irregular or def in their comparison : BoeUive. Comparative. Superlative, well better best ill worse worst much more most nigh (or near) nearer next forth further furthest far farther farthest late later last (or latest) (rathe) rather Fwrther and fwrthest are now generally used to express progress, advancement; farther and farthest, with respect to distance in space. Bather is derived from an old adjective rathe, meaning ea7%. Milton speaks of the rathe primrose, and Tennyson writes, TiU rathe she rose, half-cheated m the thought. 196 ENQLIBH GRAMMAR, Substitutes for the Adverb. 447. Adverbial phrases or adverbial clauses may take the place of adverbs, generally with the result of making the statement more precise. A sentence containing an adverbial clause is complex. For Gi&re^ in the sentence He was seen there, we may sub- stitute the phrases, in the street, at church, on top of the house, with the result of more exactly defining our meaning. In He is not ca/refvl enough, we may substitute a clause for the word enough, and say He is not so ca/reful as he ought to he. Parsing. 448. An adverb is parsed by telling: 1. The verb, etc., whose meaning is modified. 2. In what way it modifies, whether as to place, tune, manner, degree, etc. 8. Its degree of comparison. Exercise 49. — Jfcfc out all the adverbs^ adverbial phraseSj and adverbial clauses^ in the following aeleo^ tions, and tell what each modifies: 1. Out of the obliquity of the equator has come forth our civilization. — Motley, 2. Gone was the glow from his cheek and the fire from his eye. 3. Loud from its rocky caverns, the deep-voiced neighboring ocean Speaks, and in accents' disconsolate answers the wail of the forest. — Longfellow, 4. Before her queenly womanhood How dared our hostess utter The paltry errand of her need To buy her fresh-churned butter?— TFTWttier. BTTMOLOQT. 197 5. By searching in the grass, the skins of grasshoppers may be occasionadly found still clinging to the sx>ears of grass where they were left when the grasshoppers shed them. — E, 8, Morse. 6. A great part of Holland and Flanders has been reclaimed by draining, and thus rendered not only habitable, but extremely valuable for agricultural purposes. 7. Soon a remarkable fossil, shawled to the chiu and band- aged like a mummy, appeared at the door of the after deck- house, and was shot into my arms by the next lurch of the ship. 8. There is nothing so desperately monotonous as the sea; and I no longer wonder at the cruelty of pirates. Fancy an ex- istence in which the coming up of a clumsy finback whale, who says Pooh ! to you solemnly as you lean over the taffrail, is an event as exciting as an election on shore ! The dampness seems to strike into the wits as into the lucifer matches, so that one may scratch a thought half a dozen times and get nothing but a faint sputter, the forlorn hox)e of fire, which only goes far enough to leave a sense of suffocation behind it. — LoweU, THE FBEFOSrnON. 449, Definition. — ^A preposition is a word used with a noun or its equivalent so as to form an ad- jective modifier or an adverbial modifier. (Head again paragraphs 31-33 and work Exercises 6 and 7.) 450. The noun or its equivalent that depends upon the preposition is in the objective case; as, before me; after us; in the garden. The preposition is said to govern the noun in the objective case, and the noun is said to be the object of the preposition. 461. Generally, the preposition precedes its ob- ject. In poetry, and when the object is a relative pronoun, the preposition often follows its object 198 BNQLiaE GRAMMAR, O streams descending to the sea, Thy mossy hanks between The flowerets blow, the grasses grow. The leafy trees are green.^A, H. Olouoh. Where do you come from? Whom are you speaking about? 463. Any equivalent of a noun may be the ob- ject of a preposition. The equivalent may be: 1. A pronoun ; as, Coffvrum in front of them, — ^Tennyson. 2. A word that is usually an adjective or an ad- verb used as a noun ; as, Step by step lifts bad to good. — Emebson. ♦ Let the great world spin for ever Down the ringing grooves of change, — Tennyson. 8. A gerund; as. By straining every nerve you m^ succeed, 4. A noun phrase ; as. None knew thee but to love thee. None named thee but to praise, — Halleok. 5. A noun clause ; as, From what he said, I gathered {hat his opinion was adverse, 453. The preposition shows the relation between its object and some other word in the sentence. This other word may be a verb, an adjective, an adverb, or a noun or pronoun. (See § 33.) When a preposition shows the relation of its ob- / / BTTMOLOGT. 199 ject to a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, it aids in forming an adverbial phrase or clause; to a noun or pronoun, an adjective phrase or clause. 454. Some prepositions are made up of two or three words ; as, according tOj on accownt ofy by means of. These may be called phrase prepositions. 455. Some words are used both as prepositions and as adverbs; as, since, above, below, down. The use of the word must determine the part of speech. If it is used as a modifier, it is an adverb; if to govern a noun or its equivalent, a preposition. Above, below f the rose of snow, Twm'd with her Hushing foe we spread. — Gray. Here, above and below are adverbs modifjring the verb spread. In The chv/rch rises above the other horjbses, A cellar was dug below the house, above and below are prepositions. 456. Some words originally present participles axe now often used with the force of prepositions; as, considering, respecting, regarding, touching. 457. Prepositions are sometimes used in com- position with verbs; as, to carry off the prize; to laugh at another^s mistakes. In this construction, the preposition usually fol> lows the verb. Sometimes it precedes it and is united with it; as, under-go, over-take. The effect of joining a preposition to a transitive verb is to make its meaning more exact, so that the preposition is used with a modifying or adverbial tendency. 900 BNGLI8H GRAMMAR. The effect upon an intransitive verb is to make it transitive. (See § 341,) Parsing. 458* In parsing a preposition it is necessary only to state its object, and the relation which the phrase of which it is a part bears to some other word in the sentence. Exercise 60. — Pick out all the prepositions in the following selections^ name their objects, and tell whether the elements of the sentence they aid in forming, are adjective or adverbial phrases, or ad- jective or adverbial clauses, and why : 1. The number of teeth and their form vary greatly in the different groups of animals. 2. Tears are the softening showers which cause the seed of heaven to spring up in the himian heart. — Sir Walter Soott, 3. Mont Blanc is the monarch of mountains; They crowned him long ago On a throne of rocks, in a robe of clouds, With a diadem of snow. — Byron. 4. Ichabod Crane's appetite for the marvelous and his powers of digesting it were equally extraordinary, and had been in- creased by his residence in the spell-bound region of Sleepy Hollow. — WasMngton Irving. 5. Over the wooded northern ridge, Between its houses brown, To the dark tunnel of the bridge The street comes straggling down. — Whdttier. 6. Doubtless, to think deeply and clearly in the recess of a cabinet is a fine intellectual demonstration ; but to think with equal depth and equal clearness amid bullets is the most com- plete exercise of the human faculties. — DisraeU. STTMOLOGT, 201 7. Bats! They fought the dogs and killed the cats, And bit the babies in the cradles. And ate the cheese out of the vats, And licked the soup from the cook's own ladles. Split open the kegs of salted sprats, Made nests inside men's Sunday hats. And even spoiled the women's chats, By drowning their sx)eaking With shrieking and squeaking In fifty different sharps and flats.— -BoW. Broumdng. 8. It is undeniable that a person seems temporarily to change his nature when he becomes part of an excursion. Whether it is from the elation at the purch£ise of a day of gayety below the market price, or the escape from personal responsibility under a conductor, or the love of being conspicuous as a part of a sort of organization, the excursionist is not on his ordinary behavior.— C D. Warner, THE OON J U N CTiON. 469. Definition.— A conjunction is a word xised to connect words or sentencea (Bead again paragraphs 34-40, and work Exercises 8 and 9.) Classes. 460. Conjunctions are divided, according to their use, into two principal classes: 1. Oo-ordinate con- jv/actions; 2. Subordinate conjunctions. 461. A co-ordinate conjunction is a conjunction that joins (a) two independent clauses, or two co- ordinate elements of a sentence. The co-ordinate elements may be, (6) two words, (c) two phrases, or (6) two dependent clauses, having the same gram- matical relation. 1 202 SNGLiaB QBAMMAR. (a) Knowledge comes, but tuisdom lingers, and IJmg&r on the shore. And the vndMduai withers, and the world is more and more. —Tennyson. (6) ^Not only we, that prate Of rights and wrongs, han)e loved the people weU, And loathed to see them overtaxed; hut She did move, and wnderwent, and o^*ercar7^e.— Tennyson. (c) We grow ourselves DMne by overcoming with mere hope And (with) most prosaic patience. —Mrs. Browning. (d) I had been content to perish, faJUng on the foemun^s grotmd. When the ranks are rdWd in vapor, and the winds are laid with sound.— Tennyson. 463* The coordinate conjunctions are divided as follows : (a) CopuioUve, denoting addition; as, both, and, also, more- over, further, etc. (6) DisQunctive, denoting choice or separation ; as, either, or, neither, nor, else, otherwise. (c) AdA)ersaiive, denoting opposition of meaning; as, hut, stiU, yet, notwithstanding, however. ^ (d) Illative, denoting effect or consequence; as, therefore, wherefore, hence, whence, consequenUy, accordingly, thus, so, so that, then, so then. 463. A subordinate conjunction is a conjunction that joins a subordinate clause to the principal clause of a sentence. When the subordinate clause is used as the subject or the object of a verb, it is a noun clause ; as a modifier of a noun or pronoun, an adjective clause; as a modifier of a verb, ad- jective, or adverb, an adverbial clause. 464. Subordinate conjunctions are classified ac- cording to the various relations which they indicate : ETYMOLOGY. 208 (a) Time; as, o«, whnle, vmtU, before, ere, since, after, as soon as, as long as, (b) Beason or cause ; as, beca/use, for, since, as, whereas, vnr asmiich as, (c) Supposition or condition; as, if, provided, supposing, u/rdess, except, otherwise, though, notwUhstom^dmg, albeit, wheth&r, {d) End or purpose ; as, that, i/n order that, lest. (6) The conjunction of comparison, tha/n. The clause intro- duced by tham, is often partially omitted ; as. He ca/n read better tha/n I {can read). He is taller tha/n I (ant taU), 465* The distinction between co-ordinate and subordinate conjunotions is of great importance, as upon it, in many cases, depends the distinction between compound and complex sen- tences. When two clauses are joined by a co-ordinate conjunc- tion, they form a compound sentence; by a subordinate con- junction, a complex sentence. (See §§ 69-78.) The student will bear in mind, however, that dependent clauses are introduced by relative pronouns and conjunctive adverbs as well as by subordinate conjunctions. It is sometimes difficult to tell whether a connective is a conjunction, or a conjunctive adverb. The rule is: (a) If a word only joins two clauses, it is a conjunction. (fi) If in addition to joining two clause®, it serves to modify the meaning of some verb, adjective, or adverb in the clause it introduces, it is a conjunctive adverb. In the sentence. He ca/me after you had gone, after merely serves to connect the sentences He came and You had gone. In the sentence. He ca/me when John was he/re, when connects the two sentences He ca/me and JoJm was here, and so far it is a conjunction. If, however, we supply the correlative thsn with the first sentence, it is evident that when modifies the meaning of the predicate was here: He came then^ when John was here. 466. Conjunctions often occur in pairs ; as. Both — a/nd: Both John and Ja/m,es a/re coming. Not only— hut: He not only reads well hut writes weU, Either— or: He regarded him as either a knave or a fool. 204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Neither—nor: Neither heat nor oM could daunt "Mm, Wheth&r—or: Whether he go or stay, ia a matter of no oonaequence. Though—yet : Though aU men deny thee, yet uHU not I. 467* Or sometimes introduces cm alteniatiye name or S3m- onym ; as, TJie prime minister, or head of the British Cabinet, The first name is usually followed by a comma. 4:68. Nor is sometimes equivalent to and not; as, He sus- pected that aU was not right, nor was he deceived {and he was nofy Parsing. 469. To parse a conjunction it is necessary to tell what elements of the sentence it connects, and the relation that exists between them. From this it may- be determined whether the conjunction is co-ordinate or subordinate, and what special signification it ex- presses. Exercise 51. — I^k out the conjv/nctiona in the fair- lowing selections^ tell what elements of the sentence each connects^ and state whether it is co-ordvaate or subordinate. If the conjy/nction is co-ordinate^ state the relation that it denotes. If subordinate, state whether it introduces a ncywa clause, an adjective clause, or an adverbial clause^ and why, Pomt out the conjunctive adverbs, and tell what kind of clause each introduces : 1. Never expect to govern others unless you have learned to govern yourself. ETYMOLOGY. 205 2. A man is shorter when he is walking than when at rest — O. W. Holmes. 3. What is twice read is commonly better remembered than what is transcribed. — Joh/nson, 4. Dreary are the years, when the eye can look no longer With delight on nature, or hoi)e on human kind. — Brycmt. 5. No man was more foolish when he had not a pen in his hand, nor more wise when he had. — S. Johnson on Goldsmith, 6. One is sometimes tempted to wish that the superlative could be abolished, or its use allowed only to old experts. — O. W. Holmes. 7. This is truth the poet sings, ^That a sorrow's crown of sorrow is remembering happier things. — Termyson. 8. If coal and the useful metals are found in any region, manufacturing interests will sooner or later be developed. 9. Every individual has a place to fill in the world, and is important in some respect, whether he chooses to be so or not. — Ha/wthome, 10. When I had gone half a mile, my opinion of the charac- ter of the pools was unchfiuiged ; never were there such places for trout ; but the trout were out of their places. — O. D. Warner. 11. Neither locks had they to their doors, nor bars to their windows ; But their dwellings were open as day and the hearts of the owners. — Longfellow. 12. Nature has a thousand ways and means of rising above herself; but incomparably the noblest manifestations of her capability of color are in the simsets among the high clouds. — Bitskm. 13. I remeAiber, I remember The house where I was bom, The little window where the sun Came peeping in at mom. — Thorrms Hood. 14. On one of those sober and rather melancholy days, in the latter i>art of autumn, when the shadows of morning €uid 206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, evening almost mingle together, and throw a gloom over the decline of the year, I passed several hours in rambling about Westminster Abbey. There was something congenial to the season in the mournful magnificence of the old pile ; and as I passed its threshold, it seemed like stepping back into regions of antiquity, and losing myself among the shades of former ages. ^Washmgton Irving, CHAPTER IV. FORMATION OF WORDS. 470. Etymology has been defined as that part of grammar which treats of the classification, inflection, and formation of words. (See §96.) 471. Words are classified, according to their uses in sentences, as noiins, pronouns, verbs, etc. 472. Words are classified, according to formation, 83 prime and composite. 473. Definition. — A prime word is a word that expresses a single idea and that can not be analyzed into any simpler elements ; as, /, mcmj long, go, in, now. 474. Definition. — ^A composite word is a word that expresses more than one idea and that can be analyzed into simpler elements, as watchman, careful. 476. In a composite word each idea is expressed by a definite part of the word, and these parts are called the component elements of the word. A composite word is said to be formed by composition. 476. The component elements of composite words FORMATION OF W0BD8. 207 are of three kinds : (a) Prime words, as in raiProad, recall, kindly ; (6) prefixes, as in recall, pre-Yent ; (c) sufl&xes, as in kind-Zj/, \eg-4ble; (d) stems, as in ex- tract, inscribe, quadru-ped. 477. A prefix {pre = before, fix = fastened) is a significant element occurring at the beginning of a word and it is used to express a modifying idea ; as, re-call = to call 6acfc ; ea;-tract = to draw out 478. A suffix {suf or sub = under, after, fix = fastened) is a significant element at the end of a word and it is used to express a modifying idea ; as, wood-e7^, hate^t^Z. • The pecTiliar mark of a prefix or a suffix is that it can never be used except as a subordinate element in a word. Some prefixes and suffixes are of Anglo-Saxon origin, some come to us from the Latin, and some from the Greek. 479. A stem is a significant element having in composition all the properties of a word, but it is used only in composition ; as, ex-tend {tend = stretch, ex = out). Stems are so called because they are parts of wofds found in other languages, chiefly the Latin and the Greek, to which inflections were added, as branches are attached to the stem of a tree. During the last nineteen centuries they have been gradually transplanted into the English language, and may now be studied as constituent parts of our every-day speech. For- merly they were called roots, but this term is now restricted to certain forms that are supposed to be the common ancestors of similar words in most of the European, and three or four of the Asiatic, languages.* • Kennedy's " Stem Dictionary " presents a collection of the most fre- quently used stems with their meanings and combinations in words. 208 BNQLISH GBAMMAB. 480. In every composite word one of the ele- ments is called the base, because it is the principal part. Its meaning is modified by one or more sub- ordinate elements, which are called adjuncts. 481. The 6a8e may be a word ; as in railrodd, recall, or it may be a stem, as in autograph (self- lurite), expand {spread out). 482. The adjimct may be a word, as in railroad^ teorpot; or a prefix, as in re-call^ ex-pand; or a suf- fix, as manly (man-like), leg-^ble (read-able). When both the base and the adjv/nct are words, the composite word is called compound ; as, black- bird, rain-bow, house-top, walking-stick. When the compound word is an unusual one, as deer-^tdlk- mg, Icyu/drbellowmg, the i)arts are usually connected in writing by a hyphen. In commonly used compounds the hyphen is generally omitted. In conversation a compound word is generally distinguished by accenting the term that would not be accented were its parts used separately. Thus, eongf^h/ruah, hlackf-^bwd; not, song thrush', black bird', 483. When the base and the adjv/nct are both stems, the composite word is called a stem-compound word; as, auto-graph (self -write), quadrurped (four- foot). 484. When the base is a word and the adjunct is a prefix or a suffix, the composite word is called a derivative word ; as, re-call, just-ly. 485. When the base is a stem, and the adjunct is an affix, the composite word is called a stem- FORMATION OF W0BD8.. 209 derivative word ; as, rer^mit (send back), faodle (ready to do). Frequently we find both a prefix and a suffix; as, itnrport- ance, comrposHAan. Sometimes the base is itself a derivative word; as, income plete-ness. Following is a list of the principal prefixes and sufl&xes of Anglo-Saxon (old form of English), Latin, and Greek origin, now in use in the English language : English Prefixes. 486. Those used to form nouns: Fore = before ; as, fore^f other. Mis = wrong ; as, mis-deed^ mis-chcmce. Vn = the opposite of ; as, vmrtruth, tm-belief, 487. Those used to form adjectives: -4 = on ; as, a-Wve, a-board, a-sleep. Far = quite, thoroughly ; as, for-lorn. Un = not ; as, un-tms, tm-wise. Mis = wrong ; as, mis-^Tiapen. 488. Those used to form verbs: A = out, from, away, often used to intensify the meaning of the verb; as, Orrise, Orwake, Orrouse. Be = by, and is used in several ways : 1. To intensify the meaning of tne verb ; as, herdoAib, ho- smea/r. 2. To change Intransitive verbs to transitive ones; as, 6e- speakf he4h4nJe. 3. To form transitive verbs out of adjectives and nouns; as, be-friend, he-nigJU^ he^roth. For = through, thoroughly, used to intensify the meaning of the verb ; as, JbrOM, for-gim, for-get. Fore = before; as, fore^)od6, forerttU. 210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Mis = wrongly ; as, mis-beUeve, mia-caU. Un = back ; as, tm-5ind, wn^do. With = back, against ; as, with-d/raw, wUhstcmcL 489. Those used to form adverbs: -4 =* on ; as, a-foot, a-field. Be = on ; as, be-fore, besides. Exercise 52. — Form derivatives by placing prer- jvxes before the following words, and classify the derivatives as nov/as, adjectives, and verbs: rest fair trust kind even dress speak call castle believe hold rise fall st/and numb give sx)eak bap conduct cloud Exercise 53. — What is the force of the prefixes m bedaub, forlorn, forewarn, misshapen, unwise, unroll, forgive. Latin Prefixes. 490. Latin prefixes frequently vary their forms in composition, the final letter being changed to harmonize in sound with the first syllable of the base. Thus, ad becomes ac, in accede; al in allude; at in attract, and so on. This process is called as- similation of sound. 491. The following are the more commonly used prefixes of Latin origin: Af abf abs = from, away ; as, Or^ertt abjure, abs-ent. Ad = to ; as,' adrJiere. By assimilation ad takes the forms a, aot of, cU, cm, ap, as, and ai ; as, aspire, ao-cord, af-fect, aZ-hide, a/nrfiex, ap-pea^ assvmiet at-traot. FORMATION OF WORDS, 211 Aniby am (from mnbi) = about ; as, a/rnh-itiony (Zm-ptUate. Ante or anti = before ; as, cmt&-date, antirdpate. SiSf hi = twice ; as, bisect, Cfi/rcum = around ; as, circimi^namgate. Ckmi, con = together ; as, comHmamd, con-vwial. This prefix assumes the forms col and cor before Z and r and co before a vowel ; as, col-lect, cor-rect, com-mit, co-eval, co-worker. Contra^ contra, or counter = against; as, contrordict, controverts cov/nter-act. De = down, from, about ; as, descend, de-part, describe. Demi = half ; as, demi-god. DiSf di, dif = apart, in two, denoting difference or nega- tion; as, dissent, di-^vision, dif-ficulty. JSoCf e, or ef = out of, from ; as, ex-oUt, e-lect, ef-face. JSxtra = out of, beyond ; as, extrorordinary. In = in, into ; as, in-vade. This prefix changes by assimila- tion into il, im, ir; as, ilAustrate, mi-merse, irritate. In its French form en, it is found in erirchant, en-dure, etc. Jw = not; by assimilation il, im, ir; as, in-cautious, tl4egal, im-piety, ir-revocdble. Inter, intra = between, within, among ; as, int&r-pose, vn- tro-duce, enter-prise, Male = ill ; as, mal-treat, maZe-^volent, Nan = not ; as, nonsense. Ob = in front of, against ; by assimilation, oc, of, op ; as, ob-viate, oo^oupy, of -fend, op-pose JFenCf pen = almost ; as, pen-dnsula. J*er = through ; by assimilation, pel and pil ; as, per-cevve, pel-huyid, pU-grim. Past = after ; as, post-pone, postscript. Pre = before ; as, pre-ddct, pre-cede. JFreter — past, beyond ; as, preter-ite, preter-natufol. JFro = forward, before ; as, pro-ceed, pro-gress. Pro is found in the forms pur and pew* in purchase, pursvs, portray. Pro = instead of ; as, pro-nowa. Re, red = back, again ; as, re-cede, rerodppt, redolent, JRetro = backwards ; as, retro-grade, retrospect. SCf sed = apart, away ; as, se-cede, sed-ition. 212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Semi = half ; as, «emf-offc2e. Sine = without ; as, sine^oure. Sub = under, up from below ; by assimilatiQn, before c, /, g, m, p, r, 8, sue, auf, sug, sum, sup, aur, sua; as, subject, stMycor, suf'fer, sug-gest, sumr^mon, sup-press, sur-prise, sus- tain, Subter = under ; as, subter-fuge. Super f 8ur = above, beyond ; as, supev^-pose, super-nctUtrcU, sur-^name. Trans = across ; as, trans-form. Uitra = beyond ; as, uUra4iberal. Un, uni = one ; as, un-armnous, uMrJorm, Vice = instead of ; as, vicer<^ujmM!UoT, vice-roy. Greek Prefixes. 493. The following are the Greek prefixes in most common use : -4, an = not ; as, a/nro^chy, Ormorphous, Amphi = on both sides, round about; as, ampTiinbious, CMnphi-theater, Ana = up, back ; as, cma-tomy, analysis. Anti = against, opposite to ; as, a/nti-dote, a/rU^arctic. ApOf ap = away from ; as, apostate, apo-stle, ap-heUon, Archi, arche, arch = first, chief ; as, archi4ect, archetype, archrbishop, AutOf auth = self ; as, OAito-crat, cmto^nomy, au4h-entic, Cata, cat = down, over ; as, cata-logue, cat-ecJUsm, IHa = through, across ; as, dia-meter, dia-gonal, Di8f di = twice ; as, dissyllable, dirphthong. I>y8 = ill ; as, dys-peptic. jEc, ex = out of ; as, ec-cerUric, exrodus. En^ elf em = in, on, at ; as, evr^uymiwrn, ellipse, em-phasis. JEpi = upon ; as, epirtaph, epMemic, Eu, ev = well ; as, ev^logy, ev-angeUst. Semi = half ; as, hemispJiere, Hyper = over, above ; as, hyper-bole, Ti/yper-critiodl' Hypo = under ; as, hypo-crUe. FORMATION OF W0BD8. 213 MeUif met = after, changed for ; as, metxirphorf metonymy. Mono = alone ; as, mono-grcvm, mono-poly. Pan = all ; as, pa/nrocea, pcmormna, Para, par = beside, against ; as, parrordox^ par-enthesis. Peri = around ; as, peri-mster, peri-gee, perirheUon. Poly = many ; as, poly-ga/my, poly-gon, po^y-techmc. Pro = before ; as, pro-phet, pro4ogii>e, Syn, sylf sym, sy = with ; as, 8yn4ax, 8yl4dble, symrpatJiy, system. English Suffixes. 493. The principal English suflfixes are the fol- lowing : 1. Those forming abstract nouns : lyotn^ denoting judgment, authority, dominion ; as, tuis-dom, free-dom, Mng-dom. Hood, head, denoting state, rank, character ; as, momr-Tiood, god-head. Ing, denoting action, state ; as, readring, hea/r-mg. Ness, denoting state, quality ; as, good-ness, greaUness. Med, denoting mode, fashion ; as, hairved, Mnd-red. Ship, denoting shape, manner, form; as, friend-sMp, wor- ship = wortty-sMp. Th, d, t; as, luedl-th, truAh; tkef-t, from thdeve; dee^, from do. Note.— Many notms ending in the sufOxeB mentioned above are used in a concrete, as well as in an abstract, sense. 2. Those used in forming diminutives: JS»/ as, ma4d-en, kitten (from cat), 7dtch-en (from cook). le; as, bird-ie, dog-gAe, An/nAe. Ing; as, foHh-mg (from fourth), tith-mg (from t&nth). Kin; as, hwmp^hki, Jo/mMcm, nop-km, lAng ; as, da/r4mg, duckling, gos-lmg, Ock; as, buO-ock, hiUodh. 214 ENGLISH GBAMKAJL 8. Miscellaneous: Er; ar, or, ier, yer, denoting the agent or doer; as, poiM-er, btgg-a^, aaHor, clo£h4er, lawyer, Ster (formerly a feminine STifftx), denoting a female agent ; as, spifirster; also an agent of either sex ; as, hachster, maUn ster. It is also used as a term of depreciation ; as, game^ster, young^ster. Ard, art, characterizing a person by a peculiarity; as, eouHi/rd, dnmk-ard, brag-g-oH, Le, el, denoting an instrument ; as, girdnle, ha/nd4e, sfuyo-el. Ther, marking the agent and used in terms of relationship ; as, farther, dangh-ter, mo4her. Ther is also found in other noims under the forms -4her^ -der, 4er; as, fed-tJier, blad-der, la/ugh-ter. Craft, denoting skill, a trade ; as, hock^craft, wood-crafb. Fare, denoting way, course ; as, thorough-far^, welrfa/re, Mic, denoting power, dominion ; as, bisJiqp-rio. Wright, a workman ; as, wheelrwright, ptay-torigM. Monger, a dealer; as, netus-monger. Exercise 54. — Form noims from the following words by adding suffixes^ and classify the deriva- tives OjS ahstrojot^ diminutive^ and concrete common notms: hard He steal direct fellow swim meek great martyr law revel high weigh girl book hardy draw child lance free leaf holy idle friend cat true dig sail Exercise 55. — PDint out the force of the suffixes m the following words : kindred goodness i)orter freedom bullock Willie worship truth writing womanhood hireling wisdom shovel maltster teacher FORMATION OF WORDS. 215 Exercise 56. — From what words and by the adr dition of what suffixes are the following derived : deed seed farthing shuttle spinster hatred theft wealth gosling mannlldn 494. Those used in forming adjectives: Edf df the suffix of the past participle, is added to nouns to form adjectives; as, tuing-^, tdlent-ed, hrig?U^e-d, gold&n- hair-ed. En = made of ; as, tuood-en, gold-en, FVist = fast, firm ; as, stead-fast, shame-faced = s?iame-fast, which is the old form of the word. Fold, denoting multiplication ; as, two-fold, mamd-fold. Ful = full ; as, Tvate-ful, wUl-ful, Inff, the suffix of the present participle; as, pleas-4ng, a/rh- noy-ing, Ish = like, when added to nouns; as, boy-ish, gvrl-ish,; when added to adjectives, the suffix means "somewhat," "rather"; as, blachdsh, green-ish. Less = loose from, without ; as, fear-less, sha/me-less. This suffix has no connection with the comparative of little. Idke = like ; as, cMldMce, wa/r-Uke. I/y = like ; as. ma/nrly, sick4y. This suffix is a softened form of the preceding. Some = hke, partaking of a certain quality ; as, glad-some, loath-some. This suffix is found in a corrupt form in bvacom, flotsam, and jetsam. Teen^ ty = ten ; as in the numerals. Thf ordinal; as, fif-th, six-th. Ward = becoming, leading to ; as, south^ward, for-wa/rd^ Wise = mode, way, manner ; as, like^wise, other-wise. Yf ey = ot the nature of ; as, ie-y, cla/y-ey. ExEBCisE 57. — Form adjectives by adding suffixes to the following words, and explain the force of each suffix used: dl6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. fog band ninA dew grace wheat brother fear flax flhade frolic wool like hurt tear neighbor wood woman filave red house 495. Those used in forming verbs: Efitf imparting the idea of cause, forms transitive verbs from nouns and adjectives ; as, strengthren, black-en, fat-t-en. Er^ r, is added to adjectives and verbs, and imparts to the base word a frequentative and intensive force; as, Mnd-er, loto-er, wand-er (from wend), gUmin-er (from gleam). Ij€, I9 is added to nouns and verbs, and imparts to the base word the sense of frequency, or diminution ; as, ne8t4e, t7vroU4e (from throat), 8ta/rt4e, straddrle (from stride). Kf frequentative ; as, taUrk (from teV), har-k (from hsa/r). Se, to make, forms transitive verbs from adjectives; as, dea/rirse. This suffix is also found in a modified form in such words as dasp = elapse, grasp = grabse, and lisp = Upse. Exercise 58. — By the addition of suffixes form verbs from the following words, and explain the force of each suffix : clean sweet knee glad height muff straight red .sniff nest fresh gleam ExEBCiSE 59. — What are the hoses and the suf- fixes of the following words : throttle straddle wander glimmer bluster heighten sparkle blacken fatten cleanse talk hark clasp grasp lisp FORMATION OF W0RD3. 217 496. Those used to form adverbs: JEs or 8, the old suffix of the possessive case ; as in n^eeds, besides, thence, v/nawares. Ere, denoting place in; as, here (related to he), there (re- lated to that), where (related to who). I/y, a softened form of Wee; as, only, utterly, wickedly, lAng, long, denoting direction; as in dark-Ung, head-Umg, sidcrlong. Ther, denoting place to; as, hither, thither, whither. Ward, warfls, denoting direction ; as, homeward, backwards. Wise, mode or manner ; as, Ukewise, otherwise. Way, ways* In Old English the accusative (objective case) of nouns was sometimes used with the force of an adverb- Hence the adverbs al-way, stradght^uxi/y. The general use of the possessive suffix -es or -s to form adverbs, is accountable for the forms always, st/radghttuays, sideways. Exercise 60. — Form adverbs from : mighty that cheery down graceful head handsome like one silly home other Latin Suffixes. 497. The principal suflSxes of Latin origin are the following: 498. Those used to form nouns: 1. Those forming abstract nouns: Age = act, condition, collection of ; as, cour-age, homrage, foU-age. Ance, ancy, ence, or ency = state or quality of being ; as, abxjmdrcmce, const-a/ncy, indulg-ence, oonsist-ency. Ice = that which ; as, just-ice. Ment = state of being, that which ; as, exdte^^ment, com- ma/ruPm&nt. It is also used to denote instrumrient, as in doour merU, omcHfnem. 218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Many = state of, that which ; as, (jcri-mony, testirmony Ian = the act of, state of being ; as, r6d6mptr4(m, evaa-ion, Qct4on, Tude, denoting condition; as, fortitude, gratitude. Ty = state or quality of; as, chaH-ty, cruel-ty Ure or eur = state of, that which ; as, grand-ewr, creat-v/re, Yf denoting condition or faculty; as, misery, victor-y, mem>or-y. 2. Those denoting simply a x>erson, or one who i)erforms the action signified by the base: Ain or an = connected with ; as, artis-cm, chapl-adn. Ant or ent = one who ; as, asaist-ant, sttid-ent, Ary» iePf eer, or er = one who ; as, secret-ary, brigadrieT^ engm-eer, marm-er. Ate = one who ; as, ad/voo-ate, cur-ate. In the French form 66 or 6, this suffix denotes the object of an action; as, legat^ee, norrmir-ee, employ-e, Ist = one who practices or is devoted to ; as, evcmgelAst theor-ist. Or or er = one who ; as, conspirat-orl success-or, doct-or, preach-er, Trix, denoting a female agent; as, execiirtrix, 3. Those forming diminutives.- El or le; as, Ubel (from liber, a book), castle (from oastrmn, a fort). Cle or cule; as, vesi-de, anima^ule Tile; as, globule, Ette or let; as, ros-ette, streamiriet. 4. Those forming collective nouns: ^y; as, yeommirry. 499. Those used in forming adjectives: AceatMS or (idaus = made of, having the quality of ; as, fa/rvnroceoua, cap-adous. Al = belonging to ; as, leg-cU, reg-al FORMATION OF WORDS. 219 An, anCf or ain = connected with ; as, hv/mrcm, humi^-ane, Ar or er = belonging to ; as, regvU-ar, prerm-er, Ary, ariaus = relating or belonging to ; as, stationrary, greg-a/ricms. Able or ihle = that may be done ; as, port-able, sens-ihle. Ant or entf equivalent to the force of the present participle inflection ing; as, discord-ant, curr-ent, JEscent = becoming ; as, putr-esoent. JEsqtie = partaking of ; as, pictur-esque, Ic ~ belonging to ; as, 4Cy rust-ic. Id — having the quality of ; as, cuyr-id, frig-id. HCf ilf ed, or le = capable of being ; as, doo-He, civM, g&ntr eel, ab4e. Ine = belonging to ; as, caririne, sal-ine. Tve = inclined to ; as, plaird-we, abusAve. Ory = fitted or relating to ; as, od/morM-ory, Ose or OU8 = full of ; as, verb-ose, cu/rirous. 600. Those used in forming verbs: -4f6 = to i)erform the act of, cause ; as, n(wigged mam,, stiff with rhewmatism, a/nd spent with toU, hobbled painfuMy along, we have in stiff and spent examples of adjective modifiers, so nearly akin to the noun in apposition, 230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. that they may be called appositive. « The appositive is merely a looser, more indirect, relation to a noun, than that of the attributive modifier. The appositive modifier is easily changed into an adjective clause : The aged man, who was stiff, etc. An adjective, accompanying a pronoun, is generally used api)ositively : S^e, courted and flattered^ soon lost hds senses. Participles are nearly always used appositively ; and, as already explained (§528), the supplement of a transitive verb is always an appositive modifier of the object. Adverbial Modifiers. 633. The meaning of a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, may be modified by an adverb or its equiv- alent. The hoot sails swiftly. The speech was highly effective. She sang very charmingly. 534* The equivalents of an adverb are: 1. A noun in the objective case, caUed an a/dA)erbial oljectwe, the equivalent of an adverbial phrase, denoting time, etc. (See § 209«) We rode ten fniles* The book cost a doUar. The toatch is worth fifty dollars. The sermon lasted an hour. 2. A noun or a pronoun in the objective case, representing an old dative case, anr* T^nerally denoting that to or for which some- thing is done, the equivalent of an adverbial phrase. (See § 526.) He gave James a book. She wrote him a letter, I bought m,e a house. He looks Uke me. 3. A noun in the nominative absolute, accompanied by a participle. (See §§ 195, 200.) Spring having com>e, the birds bmld their nests. 4. An adverbial phrase : (a) Prepositional; as, He rides an a bieyde* (b) Infinitive ; as, He was amadous to make a start* They camfie to scoff; they remamed to pray. SYNTAX. 231 5. An adverbial clause : I shall come when I am ready* He ran to the rescue as fast as he could* 535. Two or more adverbial modifiers may be attached to the same verb, adverb, or adjective ; as. She sang gayly and with great expression* Exercise 65. — In the selections given in Exercise 49, point out all the adverbial modifiers^ tell to which class each belongs, and what word each modifies. Independent Elements. 536o Independent elements are words that have no immediate relation with other words in the sen- tence. They are: 1. A noun in the nominative case by address. (See §200.) 2. An adverb or a conjunction used to connect a sentence with a preceding sentence ; as, The messenger, Iiowever, toas not sincere. 3. Interjections. (See §§41-42.) 4. Phrases used independently; as, To say the least, hds conduct is very extraordinary. 637. Connectives are conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs, and relative pronouns. Classification of Sentences. 638. According to their use, sentences are classified as: 1. Declarative; 2. Interrogative; 3. Imperative. (See §§ 2-10. Work agam Exercise 1.) 539. According to their structure, sentences are classified as Simpley Complex, and Compound. 232 ENGLISH GRAJiMAB. 540. Definition. — ^A simple sentence is a sentence containing one subject and one predicate, either of whicli may be compound. 641. The simple sentence may contain any or all of the elements of a sentence except the clause. (For various forms of the simple sentence, see §§65-68. Work again Exercise 16.) The Complex Sentence. 643. Definition. — A complex sentence is a sen- tence that contains one principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. (Bead §§69-72, and work again Exercise 17.) 543. A subordinate clause may perform in a sen- tence the function of a noun, of an adjective, or of an adverb. Hence, subordinate clauses are classified as noun clauses, adjective clauses, and adverbial clauses. When the subordinate clause is a noun clause, the principal clause is generally the entire sentence. When the subordinate clause is adjective or adverb- ial, the principal clause is generally that which con- tains the word whose meaning is modified by the subordinate clause. The Noun Clause. 644. A noun clause is a clause that performs the function of a noun. 545. A noun clause may be used : 1. As the subject of a sentence: Thdt he is honest appears evident. TFhere he is buried has never he^ discovered. 8TNTAX. 238 2. As the object of a verb or of a preposition: I aam that he was at home. We do not know wliere he is hiding* He does not know what we are doing. He was earnest in what lie undertook. 3. As predicate complement after an incomplete intransitive verb: Things are not what they seem. 4. In apposition: TTie fact, that he was there, was soon known. We had a hope that he might come. KoTB.— In the last sentence, some regard the clause as the object of the action implied in the nonn hope^ equivalent to toe hoped that he vxnUd come. 546. Noun clauses are introduced: 1. By the relative pronoun what; as, I know what you would say. 2. By the compound relative pronouns ; as, Whoever would he happy, must he pure and just, 3. By the interrogative pronouns who, which, and what; as, I inquired who was tliere. (See § 278.) 4. By the conjunctive adverbs where, when, whe/nce, whither, whether, etc.; as. Thou ca/nst not tell whence it (the wind) comes, or whither it goeth, 5. By subordinate conjunctions. (See §§4:63-4«) 547. The conjunction that is sometimes omitted : I know you are to hlame = I know tJiat you are to hla/me. 548. Frequently a noun clause is the real subject of a verb, when it is temporarily represented by the pronoun it: as. It is evident that the Governor should sign the hill. In such cases the clause is in apposition with the pronoun. 549* In the sentence, I do not doubt hut t?iat he will suc- ceed, the hut is unnecessary, and its use is improper. 550* In the sentence, The tram would have arrived on time, hut that it met with am, a^ccident, the noun clause that it met with an accident is the object of the preposition hut, and the clause and preposition together form an adverbial modifier of the verb vxyuld haA)e a/rrived. 551. A short quotation, containing a subject and predicate, when dependent upon a verb, may generally be regarded as a I 2M SHrOLlSB QBAMXAR. noun cl&use; as, St said "I am Ured." If, however, the quota- tioQ contains eeveral Bentonces, each should be analyzed inde- pendently. EiEECiSE Q6.—I\>int out aM the nmm clauses in the following selections and give the syntax of each : 1. I dreamed that Greece might still be free. — Byron, 2. I beg to say that I have not the least belief in the Noble Savage. 3. Thathumanheartaaregoodinthemain, Isatruestatement. 4. Write it on your heart that every day is the best day iii the year.— Emerson. 5. I believe with the Persians that ten measures of talk were sent down from heaven, and that tbe ladies took nine. 6. Polonius's advice to bis son was this : " Beware of en- trance into quarrel." 7. That imitation is the sincerest flattery, has generally been acknowledged. 8. The important question is, what sciences ought to be taught in our schoobt 9. Hearing that it was better to visit tbe ruins by moon- light, we started about eigbt o'clock. 10. It is a strange thing how little, people in general know about the sky. — Bu^rnn. 11. What can they see in the longest kingly line in Europe, save that it runs back to a successful soldier?— SwK. 18. Dr. Watts's statement that birds in their little nests agree, like too many others intended to form the infant mind, is very- far from being true.— iowwK. 13. It would seem to have been especially ordered by Provi- dancf.. thftt, the discovery of the two great divisions of the imisphere should fall to the two races best fitted to colonize them.— Prescott. as been estimated that the quantity of heat dis- r the Atlantic from the waters of the Gulf Stream, i day, would be sufficient to raise the column of the that rests upon France and tbe British Isles from point to summer heat. — Maury. BTNTAX. 836 Adjective Clauses. 553. An adjective clause is a clause that per- forms the function of an adjective, that is, modifies the meaning of a noun or a pronoun. 553* An adjecin/ve clause may be introduced by the relative pronoun tnat, or by who, which, as, when used restrictively. (See § 282.) The noun or pronoun whose meaning is modified by the adjective clause is always the antecedent of the relative ; as, DiU you see the tree that was blasted by Ughtnmg f I do not Wee such pastry as she rruikes. The relative pronoun is ofteD omitted ; as. I ha/ve fov/nd the house {that) I was looking for, 554. An adjective clause may be introduced by a conjimc- tive adverb, such as where = in which place; when = at which time; why = on account of which, and some others, the equivalents of a relative pronoun and a preposition ; as, Thds is the house where I was bom. He called at a/a hou/r when 1 could not see Mm. It is easy to find reasons why other people should be patient. 555* Care must be taken to distinguish noun clauses, intro- duced by who, when, or where, from adjective clauses. Noun : I do not know when I shall start* Adjective : I do not know the time when I shaU start. Adverbial Clauses. 556. An adverbial clause is a clause that per- forms in a sentence the function of an adverb, that is, modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. In the sentence. He was sitting by the tovndow, when the dock struck nine, the clause when the clock struck nine, tells the time at which he was sitting by the window, and hence modi- flee the meaning of the verb. 236 ENGLISH QBAMMAB, 657. Adverbial cla^uses may express various rela- tions, of which the following are the most important : . 1. Place : as. Wherever he went, Tie teas welcome. Such clauses are introduced by the conjunctive adverbs of place, where, whither, whence, wherever, etc. In the example given above, the clause is 6ui adverbial modifier of the predicate was welcome. 2. Time: as, While you were speaking, he left the room. Such clauses are introduced by the conjunctive adverbs of time, when, while, whenever, etc., fiuid by the conjunctions of time, before, after, sinoe, ere, until, as soon as, etc 3. Manner: afe. We solve these problems as we have been instructed. Such clauses are generally introduced by the conjunctive ad- verb as. 4. Degree : The house is not so large as we thought it was. Such clauses are introduced by the conjunction th^jm, and the conjunctive adverbs the (§ 442) and as. They are generally used t» modify the meanings of adjectives and adverbs. Adverbial clauses of degree are often elliptical: There is nothirig so kingly as hi/ndness (is kingly). He is working harder tha/n ever (he worked). Great care must be observed in the construction of sentences in which than or as is used as a term of comparison. We may say, She loves him, more than I, She loves him more than me: but the first means She loves him more than I love him; and the second. She loves him more than she loves me. As requires a correspondence, term for term, in the two clauses which it serves to imite : He is not so tdU as I (am tall), not He is not so tall as me. Where both than and as [or so] are necessary to the comparison, neither of them should be omitted. He is wiser but not so old as his brother, should be. He is wiser tlian his brother, but not so old. 5. Cause : Because he was ambitiotis, I slew him. Such clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctiond because, as, since, for, etc. 6. Consequence : He had rtm so fast, that he was out of breath. SYNTAX, 237 A clause of consequence is often introduced by so tJuxt, 7. Purpose: He sPudies that he may become a scholar. Such clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions thcUt m order that, so that. 8. Condition: If he were within call, I should send him to the city. Such clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions */, v/rUess, except, etc. 9. Concession: Though we are beaten, we have not lost our honor. For the use of the subjunctive mode in clauses of purpose, condition, and consequence, see § 363. For a list of subordinate conjunctions, see §464, and for a list of conjunctive adverbs, see §440. 558* A subordinate clause in a complex sentence may itself be complex. In the sentence, I think he wiU speedUy recover if he is prudent, the principal clause is I think (that) he will speedily recover. That he wUl speedily recover is a noun clause, the object of think. If he is prudent is an adverbial clause modifying the meaning of the verb wUl recover. Exercise 67. — In the following complex sentences, point out the principal clauses and the subordinate clauses, tell whxit kind of clause each of the latter is a/ad what it modifies: 1. There lies a vale in Ida, lovelier Than all the valleys of lonifui hills.— ^'ermt/son. 2. To know That which before us lies in daily life Is the prime vmdoTd.^MUton. 3. Wherever English poetry is read and loved, Bryant's poems are known by heart. — HUlard. 4. Whene'er a noble deed is wrought. Whene'er is spoken a noble thought. Our hearts in glad surprise To higher levels Tia&.^LongfeUow. 238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 5. Any life that is worth living must be a struggle, a swim- ming not with, but against, the stream.— Dean Stanley. 6. When a man has not a good reason for doing* a thing, he has one good reason for letting it alone. — Sir Walter Scott, 7. The generosity of a searsick sufferer in giving away the delicacies which seemed so desirable on starting, is not ranked very high on the books of the recording angel.— O. W. Holmes. 8. When heats as of a tropic clime Burned all our inland valleys through. Three friends, the guests of summer time. Pitched their white tent where sea-winds blew. —WliUtier. 9. The metal for the Vendome Column was obtained by melting twelve hundred cannon; which had been captured from the Bussians and Austrians. 10. Johnson was of the opinion that a mem grows better as he grows older, and that his nature mellows with age. Compound Sentences. 669. Definition. — ^A compound sentence is a sen- tence containing two or more principal, or independ- ent, clauses. In the compound sentence, two or more sentences that are grammatically independent are brought together into one, to give greater imity or force to the ideas expressed, or for the sake of comparison, contrast, etc. The sentences that make up a compound sentence are called co-ordinate clauses, because, grammatically, they are of equal rank ; as, England levied taxes wnQustly, and the Colonies rebelled. 660. Co-ordinate clauses are generally connected by co-ordinate conjunctions (see §§ 461-3), and com- pound sentences may be classified to correspond with the classes of co-ordinate conjunctions, as follows: 1. OoptUati/vef in which a second clause or several clauses add something to the first without modifying its meaning. And SYNTAX, 289 is the most common comiective ; as, Hcmnibcbl crossed the Alps, cmd the Bomans marched to meet Mm. The comiective is some- times omitted; as, T&mperaruie promotes health; mtempercmce destroys it. Under this head must be included sentences in which the relative pronoun has a co-ordinating force, that is, in which it is equivalent to a personal pronoun and a conjunc- tion ; as. The knight threw down, the glove, which (= and it) 7m adversa/ry picked up, 2. Distjimctive, in which two or more clauses are so joined as to imply the notion of an alternative. The connective is or, nor, either—or, neither — nor; as. You must pay the money, or .1 wiU bring suit against you. The pubUc did not appreciate hda speeches, nor did his speeches please the public, 3. Adversative, in which the co-ordinate clauses are in op- position to one another. The most common connective is bu>t: as. Men may come and men m>ay go, hut I go on f&re/ver. 4. lUative, in which the second of two clauses denotes an effect or consequence of the first, or a conclusion from it ; as, Se was honorable, therefore he was respected, I was too late for the train, so I retu/med home. The season uxis dry, henoe the crops failed. 561* Two or more of the preceding classes of sentences may be united in the scune compound sentence; as. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again; Th' eternal years of God are hers; But Error, wounded, writhes in pain, And dies among his worshipers. — Brya/rU, 56S. Compound sentences are sometimes formed by joining together co-ordinate clauses that are themselves compound; as. Trust men, £uid they will be true to you ; treat them greatly, and they will show themselves great. — Emerson, 563. A compound sentence ma|r have any or all of the sentences that compose it, complex ; to, I know not where His islands lift Their fronded palms in air; I only know I can not drift Beyond His love and care. — WhitU&Tr 4«^ f»Z . ma- T^-. cr snrre fjinpip mhiUhhb bb may ^ir.: za- si^^ijttr GESssncs. Tne cantTBCQan may '^^^^^ ^^^ KZT'>?r- c r&r TSEBdiaace. or has^ subject -t-'- Tr»t-^j-j:.H r~xr- z ^fi~ crag" -fagrnp^r^ gi b ^srrnjMf^ flemeaKje, *"•«-•.. ..J — ^i^ _ ... :..^- ^.^^j^i ^^ f'rf—.i^A^ ff- A/7]74£ Egjpresaed -*■" *" "* — :iirfT-.;p£; -T3- afZLcsnTSt xTZr--iir2r Ti=: senxsnae is simple ^«fL ^-'-^ ^ — -^>'=:-^ ;:^ -r-riliTLESr r=;i J^^J^ SL?sn£ r*^ .flow. ' —5=——. »— ssTs- .1^ riJC-zific^s Cc » ••' are two or d, the con juno- — *r^.*"^ ■ ' -^ -■ ^Z*^'*'- ''^-'*^ - <■■*•■« i?.J i«w Tiy Jbauft.^j* .Anew*. r M>w M »,. yL* ym, and Mmjf aa long as you COM»Lsx: ivitt* Sim not, :r»- ha tea never pay you. EiEKCKB tf S.-/7J .^^ foTlowirvg sentences point out co-<»-dt,uite clauses, and state vuUh regard to each etner^ it w ^imp^^ cmnplex, or compotmd. If a ^^u,^ zs complex, point out the principal and the ^^£,aramate clauses,