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Amphibian and Reptile Survey

of the
Bureau of Land Management
Miles City District, Montana

A Report to:

Bureau of Land Management

Miles City Field Office

1 1 1 Garryowen Road

Miles City, MT 59301

and

Billings Field Office

810 East Main

Billings, MT 59105-3395

Submitted by:
Paul Hendricks

February 1999

Montana Natural Heritage Program
1515 East Sixth Avenue
Helena, MT 59620-1800

597.9

NllARSBLMMC

1999

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Montana Stale Library

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© 1999 Montana Natural Heritage Program

This document should be cited as follows:

Hendncks. P. 1999. Amphibian and Reptile Surve> of the Bureau of Land Management Miles Cit> Distnct.
Montana. Montana Natural Hentage Program. Helena. MT. 80 pp.

ABSTRACT

During 1995 and 1998, a total of 1 10 site surveys for amphibians and reptiles were conducted by
Montana Natural Heritage Program biologists in the Bureau of Land Management Miles City
District (the former Billings, Big Dry and Powder River Resource Areas) in eastern Montana.
During the 1998 contract period, 102 site surveys were conducted (8 of these were nocturnal
roadside call surveys, 94 were standard surveys) during April to July All surveys were conducted
by one individual. Surveys took from 5 to 180 minutes (mean = 58.5 min) and consisted of a
thorough search of the wetland perimeter in combination with netting of near shore aquatic
habitats for adults, eggs, larvae, and tadpoles Sampling was done by hand and dipnet At seeps,
rocks and logs were overturned in and near wet areas to expose hidden individuals In addition to
site surveys, observations of road kills were recorded, as were fortuitous sightings by those
conducting the surveys or other reliable individuals.

Ten species (6 amphibian and 4 reptile) were detected within the Miles City District area during
1998 site surveys. Species included: Tiger Salamander (Amhystoma tigrmum), Woodhouse's
Toad {Bufo wuodhousii). Great Plains Toad {Bufo cogna(us). Western Chorus Frog {Pseudacris
triseriata). Plains Spadefoot {Spea bombifrons). Northern Leopard Frog {Rana pipiens). Painted
Turtle {Chrysemys picta). Racer {Coluber constrictor). Plains Garter Snake (Thamnophis radix),
and Common Garter Snake (Tfiamnophis sirtalis). Four reptile species encountered in 1998 other
than on site surveys include Smooth Green Snake (Liochlorophis vernalis). Gopher Snake
{Fituophis catemfer). Western Hognose Snake (Heterodon nasicus), and Western Rattlesnake
(Crotalus viridis). In addition. Short-homed Lizard {Phrynosoma hernandezi). Sagebrush Lizard
{Sceloporiis graciosus), and Western Terrestrial Garter Snake {lliamnophis elegans) were
reported from the Miles City District by other observers in 1998. In 1995, 3 species were
detected during 8 site surveys in Carbon County: Tiger Salamander, Western Chorus Frog, and
Plains Spadefoot. Short-horned Lizard, Sagebrush Lizard, Gopher Snake, and Western
Rattlesnake were also encountered, but not during surveys.

Of the 1998 surveys, 95. 1% had one or more amphibian or reptile species present. Western
Chorus Frog, Northern Leopard Frog, and Plains Garter Snake were the most frequently
encountered species in 1998, being recorded on 67.6%, 61.7%, and 22.3%, respectively, of the
site surveys. Species with records from the Miles City District area, but not encountered during
the 1995 and 1998 surveys, include Bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana). Common Snapping Turtle
(Che/ydra serpentina). Spiny Softshell (I rionys spini/erns), and Milk Snake (Lampropeltis
tnangulum).

Western Toad {Bufo boreas), Columbia Spotted Frog {Rana luteiventris), and Rubber Boa
{Charina hottae), all with montane affinities, have been documented but are marginal to the Miles
City District in the west. The Canadian Toad {Bufo hemiophrys), although recorded from the
Miles City District area in 1966, is now considered historical (not reported in >30 years). Wood
Frog {Rana sylvatica) might be documented eventually from the Miles City District area in the
Big Horn Mountains of Big Horn County.

ACKNOUTEDGMENTS

I thank Kirv\'in Werner and Bryce Maxell for help conducting site surveys, Martin Miller for data
entry, John Hinshaw for data retrieval, and Cedron Jones for mapping occurrences. Thanks also
to Dale Tribby (Miles City Field Office, BLM) and Jay Parks (Billings Field Office, BLM) for
their interest and support with this project, and their efforts to coordinate identification of survey
sites. Ted Nordhagen of Westby kindly acquired the Smooth Green Snake specimens.

Financial support for the project came from a Challenge Cost-Share agreement between the
Bureau of Land Management and the Montana Natural Heritage Program (Montana State
Librar>', Natural Resources Information System and The Nature Conservancy). Funds for
additional survey work on National Wildlife Refiige and Waterfowl Production Area lands within
the Miles City District, BLM region were provided from an additional Challenge Cost-Share
agreement with the Montana Office of the USFWS.

Museum records were received from; American Museum of Natural History, Academy of Natural
Science, Brigham Young University, California Academy of Science, Carnegie Museum,
University of Puget Sound Museum, Field Museum of Natural Histon*', Glacier National Park
Museum. Illinois Natural History Survey, University of Kansas, Los Angeles County Museum,
Louisiana State University Museum of Zoolog\', Museum of Comparati\e Zoology - Harvard,
Milwaukee Public Museum, Montana State Uni\ersity Museum, Michigan State University
Museum, North Carolina State Museum of Natural History, Northern Louisiana University
Museum, University of Colorado Museum, University of Georgia Museum of Natural History,
University of Idaho Museum, University of Michigan Museum, University of South Dakota,
United States National Museum of Natural Histor>', University of Texas - Arlington, University of
Texas - El Paso, and Peabody Museum - Yale Most museum data were received with the help of
Dr. Charles Peterson, Idaho State University, Pocatello.

Jim Reichel. former MTN^HP Zoologist, was instrumental in organizing and conducting a series of
amphibian and reptile inventories across Montana, the first comprehensive coverage of the state in
three decades, and by far the most uniform and complete. Jim"s untimely death in 1997 prevented
his direct involvement in completing this portion of the overall project. This report represents one
of a series of regional inventories that contribute to a baseline survey of the entire state.

IV

INTRODUCTION

Populations of several amphibian species are currently declining in the western U.S. and elsewhere
around the world. Acid rain, ozone depletion, pollution by toxic chemicals and heavy metals,
predation and/or competition by exotic species, habitat alteration, climatic changes, disease,
immune system problems, and combinations of several of these factors have all been suggested as
possible causes (Com and Fogelman 1984, Phillips 1990, Yoflfe 1992) Recognition of these
alarming population trends has renewed interest in the status amphibian populations in particular,
and raised awareness regarding current ignorance of the status of many reptile species as well.

The amphibians and reptiles occupying the plains of eastern Montana have received scant
attention by naturalists and biologists. As a consequence, we know very little about the status,
population trends, habitat requirements, and reproductive biology of many species within this
region of the state. With new information acquired in the last 5 years from a series of regional
inventories of the herpetofauna in eastern Montana (e.g., Reichel 1995b, Hendricks and Reichel
1996, Hendricks and Reichel 1998, Roedel and Hendricks 1998), we are gaining an understanding
of abundance and population trends for several species, and are "fleshing out" known distributions
that were largely based on opportunistic encounters and other data at least half a century old.

In 1805-1806 Lewis and Clark were the first to document the presence of Spiny Softshell
(Triofiyx spiniferus), Eastern Short-horned Lizard {Phiynosoma hernandezi). Western Hognose
Snake {Heterodon tiasicus). Western Terrestrial Garter Snake {Thanniophis elegans), and
Western Rattlesnake {Crotalis vindts) along the Missouri River in present-day eastern Montana
(Burroughs 1995). Most additional published accounts of amphibians and reptiles in eastern
Montana are concentrated along the Missouri River corridor and its tributaries. Notable among
these reports is that of Cope (1879), who commented on the occurrence of 5 amphibian and 3
reptile species between the Judith River and Armells Creek. More recently, Mosimann and Rabb
(1952) documented the presence of 4 amphibian and 7 reptile species in the Tiber Reservoir area
along the Marias River of northcentral Montana. The written record of exploration of Montana in
the 19"' century and first half of the 20^ century, and unpublished museum collection records,
provide the base for analyses of historical distributions and population trends. Additional
distribution and status information for border regions can be gleaned from Wheeler and Wheeler
(1966) for North Dakota, Visher (1914) for South Dakota, Baxter and Stone (1985) for
Wyoming, and Secoy and Vincent (1976) for Saskatchewan.

Preliminary data gathered from site surveys and revisits to historical sites indicate that the
Northern Leopard Frog {Rana pipiens) has disappeared over much of its former range in western
Montana (Werner et al. 1998) and is declining in at least some areas of eastern Montana. Status
and population trend of several toad species {Bufo spp.) are unknown, although declines of the
Western Toad (Bufo hureas) have recently been reported in northern Idaho (C. Peterson pers.
comm), northwestern Montana (Werner and Reichel 1994, Werner et al. 1998), Yellowstone
National Park (Koch and Peterson 1995) and Colorado (Carey 1993).

Land-use practices, such as large-scale logging, continue to be detrimental to resident amphibians

1

in some regions of the western U.S. (Buryetal. 1991). The impacts of grazing on amphibians
and reptiles and their habitats remain poorly studied and understood. Heavy grazing in and
around breeding sites associated with water may negatively impact amphibians and reptiles by 1 )
eliminating emergent vegetation necessary for egg and larval survival, 2) lowering water quality,
especially causing high siltation levels, 3) trampling of eggs, larvae and adults, and 4) degrading
the amphibian and reptile food base. Additionally, modification of seeps and springs for livestock
watering, by capturing water flow in tanks, may make former breeding sites unusable by
amphibians.

Inventory of the Miles City District, BLM was undertaken to survey for amphibian and reptile
species in a large region of eastern Montana for which there are only rudimentarv data on the
status and distribution of most species. Several historical Northern Leopard Frog sites were also
visited to determine if this species was still present. Concurrent with site surveys, a variety of
data on the physical characteristics of each site was recorded; these data help identify habitat
needs of selected species. Management suggestions are presented that pertain to habitat
enhancement for selected species. Limitations in current knowledge and future information needs
are also addressed.

The Montana Natural Heritage Program currently (1998) lists five amphibian and five reptile
species as Animal Species of Special Concern. Of these, two amphibian and five reptile species
have been documented within the borders of the Miles City District, BLM. They are Canadian
Toad (Biifo hemiophrys). Northern Leopard Frog {Rana pipiens). Common Snapping Turtle
{Chelydra serpentina). Spiny Softshell {Thonyx spmiferiis). Western Hognose Snake {Heterodon
nasicus). Milk Snake (Lampropeltis thangulum), and Smooth Green Snake (Liochlorophis
[=Opheodns] vemalis). The toad, two turtle species, and Milk Snake are also listed as BLM
Special Status Species for Montana and the Dakotas.

STUDY AREA AND METHODS

The BLM's Miles City District (comprised of the former Billings, Big Dry, and Powder River
Resource Areas) was surveyed during the 1998 inventory, portions of the Billings Resource Area
in Carbon County were surveyed in 1995, and those data are included in this report. The area
bounded by the Miles City District is huge, stretching from near Yellowstone National Park in the
southwest to Saskatchewan in the northeast, and bordered by North Dakota and South Dakota to
the east, and Wyoming to the south. Land cover of the District is mostly agricuhural lands,
grasslands, or shrublands, with scattered pine forests in the south, and riparian gallery forest and
other riparian types along major drainages, such as the Missouri and Yellowstone rivers and their
tributanes. Elevation is generally below 5000 ft (1500 m), but the southwestern comer of the
Miles City District encompasses several mountain uplifts (such as the Big Horn, Pryor, and
Beartooth mountians).

Historical records from museum collections can be very useful in determining long-term changes
in populations or shifts in biodiversity (Shaffer et al. 1998). Historical locations of amphibians
and reptiles were recorded from the literature (see Bibliography) and museum specimen records.
Records were received ft-om over 20 major North American museums that have computerized
their collection records (see Acknowledgments). Locations derived from these sources have been
entered into a database and digitized. Distribution maps were created using survey and sighting
data and historical records, including museum specimens.

Survey sites were chosen based on 3 criteria; 1) high priority sites as determined by the BLM; 2)
location of streams, seeps and wetlands on topographic maps; and 3) accessibility of the wetlands
by roads. Based on the above, 3-6 sites were chosen daily for surveys. From five minutes to 3
hours were spent at each site (mean = 58.5 minutes), depending upon the size of the area and
what was found. Initially, the entire shoreline, or a major part thereof, was searched by walking
slowly along the edge and up into the surrounding vegetation, including rolling over rocks and
logs. At regular intervals, the aquatic habitat was sampled for tadpoles or larvae using dipnets. If
the initial sampling showed amphibian/reptile species present, ftirther eftbrt was expended in order
to get a more comprehensive view of abundance and distribution.

An attempt was made to capture at least the first few individuals of a species seen at a survey site.
The species name was recorded along with developmental stage and sex (if possible), the animals
were then released. On occasion, representative samples of the more common species in an area
were preserved for permanent museum records and will be deposited at the Idaho State University
Museum. Water temperature, air temperature, and a general description of the area were
recorded Standardized data sheets were used during this project, the amphibian survey data
sheet was developed by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and is used extensively by a variety of
researchers in the western U.S. Much site-specific data was gathered during these surveys; not all
data has been analyzed or is presented in this report, but is available from the Montana Natural
Heritage Program.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
General Summary

A total of 102 sites was surveyed during the months of April (22 surveys). May (32 surveys), June
(34 surveys), and July (14 surveys) in 1998 (see Appendix 1). Eight of the 1998 surveys were
roadside nocturnal call surveys, rather than the standard site surveys. Eight additional sites (3 in
June, 5 in July) were surveyed on BLM lands in Carbon County in 1995 (see Appendix 3a). Of
the total 110 sites, 100 (90.9%) had one or more amphibian or reptile species present (Appendix 2
and 3b). During the 1995 surveys, 3 of the 8 sites (37.5%) had one or more amphibian species
present; in 1998, 97 (95. 1%) of 102 surveys had one or more amphibian and/or reptile species
present. Localized areas across the entire region were covered in the inventory. Although no
species were found at 10 sites, their absence may have been due to the time of day, weather
conditions, or other factors at the time of sampling.

Ten species (6 amphibian, 4 reptile) were detected during site surveys within the Miles City
District, BLM (Table 1). Two amphibian species (Boreal Chorus Frog, Pseudacris triseriala, and
Northern Leopard Frog, Rana pipiens) were the most abundant (detected at > 50% of all site
surveys) and widespread, while the Plains Garter Snake (Thamnophis radix) was the most
abundant and widespread reptile species (detected at > 20% of all site surveys).

TABLE 1 . Amphibian and reptile species detected during site surveys on the Miles
City District, BLM: 1995 - Carbon County only (Appendix 3a), 1998 - all other
counties (Appendix 1).

SPECIES*

PRESENCE: #

OF 1998
SURVEYS (94)

PERCENT

OF 1998

SURVEYS

PRESENCE: #

OF 1995
SURVEYS (8)

PERCENT

OF 1995
SURVEYS

AMTI

12

12.8

3

37.5

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BUCO

6

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69

67.6

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SPBO

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3

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COCO

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THRA

21

22.3

0.0

THSI

1

1.1

0.0

*ANfri (Ambystoma ligrinum). BUWO (Bufo woodhousti). BOCO (Bufo cognatus), PSTR
(Pseudacris triseriala), SPBO (Spea bomhifrons). RAPI (Rana pipiens). CHPI (Chrysemys picla),
COCO (Coluber constrictor). THRA (Thamnophis radix), THSI (Thamnophis sirtalis).

' Numbers are based on 102 total site surveys in 1998, which includes 8 roadside nocturnal
call surveys unique for this species.

Survey time at sites ranged from 5 to 180 minutes during 1998 (Appendix 2; mean = 58.5 min.,
sum = 5,965 min), and from 5 to 40 minutes in 1995 (Appendix 3b: mean = 18.8 min., sum = 150
min.).

Site survey results tended to support the general observation that emergent vegetation is needed
by breeding amphibians. In 1998, amphibians were detected at 14 of 15 sites (93.3%) and 71 of
74 sites (95.9%) with some emergent vegetation present (values are for shoreline emergence of 1-
25% and >50%, respectively). Unfortunately, the number of sites with no recorded emergent
vegetation was small (4 sites), but amphibians were detected at only 2 (50%) of these. Emergent
vegetation provides cover and predator protection for tadpoles, and material upon which eggs can
be attached. Water levels are often below the level of emergent vegetation (usually a band of
sedges or rushes) at ponds lacking emergent vegetation but with amphibian tadpoles present,
suggesting that emergent vegetation was probably present at the time of egg laying.

There were 76 opportunistic sightings of 1 1 species (3 amphibians and 8 reptiles) made by
MTNHP personnel during the inventory: 26 sightings of 6 species in 1995 in Carbon County, and
50 sightings of 9 species in 1998 in all other counties (Appendix 4). Of the total for both years, 6
of the reptile species were not reported during any of the site surveys. These species include
Short-horned Lizard {Phiynosoma hernandezi [=doiiglasi]). Sagebrush Lizard {Sceloporus
graciosus). Smooth Green Snake {Liochlorophis [=Opheodrys\ vernalis). Gopher Snake
{Pitiiophis catemfer). Western Hognose Snake {Heterodon nasicus), and Western Rattlesnake
(Crotalus vihdis).

More details regarding status, distribution, timing of reproduction, and period of surface activity
during the 1998 inventory are presented in the species accounts that follow. Montana Natural
Heritage Program Global (G) and State (S) rank codes range from 1 (critically imperiled) to 5
(demonstrably secure, though possibly rare in parts of its range). A question mark (*]*) indicates
that the assigned rank is uncertain.

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Species known to be present within the Miles City District, BLM

Tiger Salamander {Ambystoma tigrmum)

Description; Adults have a smooth moist skin without scales and the color pattern is highly
variable; usually the background color is dark, with lighter blotches of yellow, tan or green
The aduh is large and heavy-bodied with a snout-vent length of 3-6" Adult Tiger
Salamanders can be separated from other Montana species by; 1) their large sized and heavy
body; and 2) two prominent tubercles on the bottom of each hind foot.
Eggs and Lan'ae: Egg masses are typically laid in small clusters of 5-120, but may be laid
singly (Nussbaum et al. 1983, Leonard et al. 1993). They are usually attached to vegetation
and placed 2"-10" below the surface of the water (Hammerson 1982a) Larval Tiger
Salamanders are typically pale green or brown-colored, though those living in bentonite clay
ponds may be nearly white. They are found in lakes and ponds, have external gills, and are
relatively large (0.75-4" snout-vent) and heavy-bodied.

Similar species; None in the Miles City District.

Habitat and Habits; Tiger Salamanders in eastern Montana are primarily associated with prairie or
agricultural habitats. On the Sioux and Ashland Districts, Custer National Forest they are also
found in wooded draws and ponderosa pine forests (Reichel 1995b, Hendricks and Reichel
1996). They breed in ponds or lakes, usually those without fish present. In arid areas, they
may also be found in springs, intermittent streams, and stock ponds. Adults spend much of the
day in rodent burrows, becoming active on the surface at night. Larvae were found in ponds
from 24 April to 24 July in 1998. Adults may be active relatively late in the year (a Carbon
County aduh was captured well away fi'om open water on 25 September 1995).

Surveying; Larvae and eggs may be seen in ponds during the day and may be sampled with a
dipnet. Migrations of hundreds or thousands of newly transformed adults are occasionally
seen in mid-late summer or early fall. During the breeding season, adults are often seen
moving to or away from the water or breeding in it. Pitfall and minnow traps may be used to
capture adults at this time. In 1995 an adult was captured in a pitfall can trap set for shrews
(Appendix 4). Throughout the rest of the summer aduUs are difficult to find, using pitfall
traps or driving roads on warm rainy nights may be the best techniques then

Status; The only salamander in eastern Montana. The species is widespread and probably more
abundant than the survey results indicate. On the Miles City District, this species was
detected in 6 counties on 12.8% of the 1998 standard surveys and 37.5% of the 1995 Carbon
County surveys (Table 1, Appendix 2 and 3b). This species should be considered common on
the Pvliles City District.

Montana Natural Heritage Program rank; G5 S5.

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Woodhouse's Toad {Bufo Moodhousii)

Description: Adults have dry skin vvitli small warts, and are gray, brown, or olive-green with
paler mottling or spots. A prominent white or yellowish line runs down the center of the
back; very young transformed toads typically lack the dorsal line, and the warts are often red-
brown in color. It has parallel cranial crests between the eyes and post-orbital crests
connecting to them at a right angle behind the eyes: the post-orbital crests typically touch the
parotoid glands If a lump-like boss is present on the snout, it does not extend back between
the eyes. The pupils are horizontal. The adult has two black tubercles on the hind feet and a
body length of 2.5-4".

Eggs and Tadpoles: Tadpoles are typically jet black. Eggs are laid in long, clear double
stings, each egg with a black center.

Similar species; Western Toad lacks cranial crests. Great Plains Toad has large, white-bordered,
dark, dorsal blotches. The Canadian Toad has a lump between the eyes; frequently the
parotoid gland is separated from post-orbital crest and post-orbital crest broken or absent.
NOTE: It is ver\- difficult to distinguish among the four Montana toad species in recently
transformed toadlets.

Habitat and Habits: Adults are partially terrestrial but often found near water. They are usually
found in irrigated agricultural areas and floodplains, versus the upland areas used by Great
Plains Toads (Bragg 1940, Timkin and Dunlap 1965, Black 1970). They are most active at
night, although they may at times be found out feeding during the day (Hammerson 1982a).
They typically breed in permanent lakes, ponds, reservoirs, and slow streams, with a
preference for shallow areas with mud bottoms (Black 1970, Hammerson 1982a, Baxter and
Stone 1985). Breeding and egg laying is spread out over the spring and early summer. In
1998 on the Miles City District, BLM, adults were observed between 28 April and 23 July,
tadpoles were observed from 2 June - 24 July.

Surveying: Adults may easily be found by using their loud calls for identification on warm (>54
F) nights; calhng peaks during the first few hours after sunset (Hammerson 1982a). "Road
hunting" on warm nights may also be effective. Eggs and tadpoles are seen in ponds and
soulghs during the day and can be sampled with a dipnet, however, identification of toad eggs
and tadpoles is diflficuh or impossible in the field.

Status: This species was found on 10 surveys in 5 counties in 1998 (Appendix 2). Woodhouse's
Toad is relatively common in eastern Montana east of the island mountain ranges, although
status and distribution north of the Missouri River is poorly known. It is the most frequently
encountered toad in eastern Montana. The geographic and habitat relationships with other
toads in Montana are not well known. Any located should be well documented with a
description written at the time indicating how this species was differentiated from other toads
present in Montana.

Montana Natural Heritage Program rank: G5 S4.

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Great Plains Toad {Bufo cogtiatus)

Description: Adults have dry skin with small warts. The coloration is dominated by a number of
large, dark, somewhat symmetrical spots surrounded by light edges on the back. The dorsal
background color is gray, light brown or olive green. The Great Plains Toad has converging
V-shaped cranial crests between the eyes and post-orbital crests connecting to them at a right
angle behind the eyes; the post-orbital crests typically touch the parotoid glands. The pupils
are horizontal. The adult has two black tubercles on the hind feet and a body length of 2-3.5".
Eggs and Tadpoles. Similar to the Woodhouse's Toad.

Similar species: Other Montana toads lack the somewhat symmetrical spotted pattern on the
back. NOTE: It is very difficult to distinguish among the four Montana toad species in
recently transformed toadlets.

Habitat and Habits: Adults may favor higher elevation grasslands than Woodhouse's Toad which
favors floodplains (Bragg 1940, Timkin and Dunlap 1965, Black 1970). They have also been
found in agricultural areas, open Ponderosa pine forests and savannahs in southeastern
Montana (Black 1970). They are most active on nights following heavy rains (Hammerson
1982a). They normally breed in temporary ponds resulting from heavy rains or irrigation
runoff or reservoirs with much fluctuation (Bragg 1940, Hammerson 1982a). In Montana
breeding apparently occurs from May to July (Black 1970). Females lay strings of eggs which
hatch after 2-3 days (Hammerson 1982a). Young typically metamorphose after about 1.5
months, though this has been reported to occur in as few as 1 7 days (Hahn 1968, Hammerson
1982a). They spend much of the year underground and emerge in response to warm rains.
Adults were encountered on the Miles City District, BLM in 1998 between 29 April - 25
June, tadpoles were noted at two sites (Garfield and Prairie counties), on 24 and 30 June.

Surveying: Adults may be located by using their loud, identifying calls on warm (>60° F) nights
following heavy rains (Hammerson 1982a). "Road hunting" on warm nights may also be
effective. Eggs and tadpoles are seen in ponds during the day and can be sampled with a
dipnet; however, identification of toad eggs and tadpoles is difficult or impossible in the field.

Status: Occurs in localized areas in eastern Montana, with large gaps in its known range.

Geographical and habitat relationships of the Great Plains Toad with other toads in Montana
are not well known, nor are status and distribution clear This species was found on 6 surveys
in 3 counties in 1998 (Table 1, Appendix 2). It should be watched for at low elevations in
prairie or shrub-steppe habitat. Any located should be well-documented with a description
written at the time indicating how this species was differentiated from other toads present in
Montana.

Montana Natural Heritage Program rank: G5 S3S4.

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Plains Spadefoot {Spea [=Scaphiopus] bombifrons)

Description: Adults are colored gray or brown with darker mottling on the back and a white belly.
Some individuals have indistinct longitudinal streaking. The pupils of the Plains Spadefoot are
vertically elliptical and there is a high, hard lump between the eyes. Its skin is less warty than
true toads. The adult has a single tubercle on the hind feet and has a body length of less than
2.5".

Eggs and Tadpoles. Oval egg masses of 10-250 eggs are attached to underwater plants or
debris. Tadpoles are mottled sooty and olive-yellow above and paler below with gold metallic
flecking over all; iris is gold. Older tadpoles, from the two-legged stage on, show a small
black tubercle on the hind feet.

Similar species: Other Montana frogs and toads have round or horizontally elliptical pupils.

Habitat and Habits: Adults are found in grassland and sagebrush areas, particularly in areas with
sandy or loose soil (Wheeler and Wheeler 1966, Hammerson 1982a, Baxter and Stone 1985).
Except during breeding, they are seldom found in the water. They are primarily nocturnal and
emerge from their burrows only following heavy rains. They breed in shallow temporary
pools usually following heavy spring or summer rains (Hammerson 1982a). Males call loudly,
with groups being heard for up to a mile. Eggs hatch after 2-3 days and tadpoles transform in
6-10 weeks (Wheeler and Wheeler 1966, Hammerson 1982a). In 1998, 10+ adults were
heard calling at one site (Miles Creek, Custer County) during a rainy night on 30 May
(Appendix 2). In 1995, tadpoles at several stages of development (legless to 4-legged
metamorphs) were found on 3 surveys between 29 June and 1 July in Carbon County
(Appendix 3a and 3b).

Surveying: Adults may be easily found by using their calls for identification when breeding at
night or by "road hunting" on warm, rainy nights. Calling normally takes place only when the
temperature is >50 F (Hammerson 1982a). Tadpoles are seen in ponds during the day and
can be sampled with a dipnet. Surveying is complicated by the long time periods which this
species spends underground, especially during droughts.

Status: The Plains Spadefoot was found at a single location in Custer County during our 1998
surveys (Appendix 2), and breeding was documented at 3 sites in 1995 in Carbon County
(Appendix 3b). There were two additional reports from 1998 (in Treasure and Yellowstone
counties). Despite few reports, spadefoots have been reported over the years from
throughout the Miles City District, BLM. It is apparently locally common in eastern Montana
(such as southern Carbon County), but there are large gaps in the known range. It should be
watched for in prairie or shrub-steppe habitat, especially following late-spring and early-
summer rains. Any located should be well-documented.

Montana Natural Heritage Program rank: G5 S4?

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Bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana)

Description; The largest of North American frogs, adult Bullfrogs may reach 8 inches in body
length. The skin is smooth. Adults are usually pale to dark green or brownish green with
darker spots or blotches. There are a series of black bands across the legs. The underside is
cream to yellowish with gray mottling. No dorso-lateral folds are present, however there is a
prominent ridge running from the eye over the tympanum to the shoulder. Males have
extensive yellow pigment on the underside, especially in the throat region, and swollen
thumbs. The diameter of the tympanum is larger than the diameter of the eye in males but
about the same size in females.

Eggs and Tadpoles: Egg masses are a 1-2 egg thick film of thousands of eggs and may reach
several feet across. Tadpoles may reach 4.5" in total length and are olive green with
numerous black spots dorsally, the belly is white to creamy with varying amounts of dark
mottling.

Similar species: Other Montana Ranid frogs have dorso-lateral folds.

Habitat and Habits: Bullfrogs are rarely seen far from the water's edge and are usually in the
water. They are associated with larger bodies of quiet water such as ponds, lakes or
backwaters of streams, usually with extensive emergent vegetation such as cattails or reeds.
They emerge in the spring only after air and water temperatures have warmed considerably
and insect populations are beginning to proliferate. Breeding takes place in June when males
attract females to their territory by a series of very deep, loud "brr-umps." The large egg mass
tends to float on the surface when first laid, but sink into the water prior to hatching
(Hammerson 1982a, Nussbaum et al. 1983). Tadpoles over-winter in the Pacific Northwest,
transforming during their second summer (Nussbaum et al. 1983, Leonard et al. 1993), The
bullfrog is a voracious feeder, eating anything smaller than itself, including ducklings, fish,
mice, frogs, and small turtles. Bullfrogs have been implicated in extirpations of native frogs
and turtles, and declines in waterfowl production (Hammerson 1982b, Leonard et al. 1993,
Kiesecker and Blaustein 1998).

Surveying: Tadpoles and adults can easily be detected visually or sampled by using a dipnet; both
may be found from spring through fall. Capture success of adults is enhanced by night
sampling using a headlamp, as they are very wary and do not allow close approach during the
day. Eggs are also easy to detect when laid in the early summer.

Status: Bullfrogs are native to the eastern and central U.S. and have been introduced to the
western states. There are at least three older records from the 1970's in the survey area (two
in Carter County, one at Fort Peck), although none as yet known from lands in BLM
stewardship. However, it is possible that several unauthorized releases have occurred on
private lands, based on conversations with ranchers in the region. They were introduced into
western Montana prior to the mid-1960's (Black and Bragg 1968), but the date when they
were first brought to eastern Montana is unknown. Bullfrogs were not recorded on our
surveys. They should be watched for in ponds, lakes, sloughs, or slow streams on the Miles
City District, BLM, Any located should be well documented.

Montana Natural Heritage Program rank: G5 SE4.

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Northern Leopard Frog {Rana pipiens)

Description: Adults are brown or green with large, dark spots surrounded by light-colored halos
on the sides and back. The dorso-lateral folds (ridges along the sides of the back) are usually
lighter in color that the surrounding background. The under-side is typically white, but may
be cream-colored or yellowish. The aduh has a body length of 2-5". Newly transformed
froglets may lack spots and are about 1" in length (Leonard et al. 1993).
Eggs and Tadpoles: Eggs are laid in 2-5" globular masses composed of hundreds to
thousands of eggs (Hammerson 1982a, Nussbaum et al. 1983). The tadpoles are brown to
dark brown on top with some metallic flecking, whereas the underside is often nearly
transparent (Nussbaum et al. 1983). Total length of tadpoles may reach more than 3"; the
eyes are located on top of the head.

Similar species: None, ahhough some newly-transformed froglets may lack spots, which makes
them extremely difficult to distinguish fi-om Spotted and Wood Frogs.

Habitat and Habits: Northern Leopard Frogs are found in or near water in non-forested habitats.
Vegetation is typically dense, as in a cattail marsh or dense sedge-meadow, although there is
evidence that very dense vegetation may exclude frogs (Miller 1978). Breeding takes place in
lakes, ponds (temporary and permanent), springs, and occasionally backwaters or beaver
ponds in streams. Adults were noted from 8 April to 24 July during 1998, eggs or tadpoles
were found from 1 April to 22 July. At survey sites where Northern Leopard Frogs were
present in 1998 (n = 58), eggs or tadpoles were detected on 1 of 15 April surveys, 7 of 17
May surveys, 9 of 13 June surveys, and 1 of 13 July surveys (G = 18.366, df = 3, P < 0.001),
indicating a peak in breeding during May and June. In Colorado, eggs hatch in 4-15 days and
tadpoles take 8- 1 5 weeks to metamorphose, depending on water temperature (Hammerson
1982a).

Surveying: Adults, tadpoles, and eggs are easily seen in and along the water during the day, and
can be sampled with a dipnet. Adults may also be captured by hand. At very low densities
adults may be difficuh to find and may be detected using a call recorder. Tadpoles are
difficult to tell from those of the Spotted Frog in areas where the two species overlap, but this
is not likely to occur on BLM lands in eastern Montana.

Status: Historically, the Northern Leopard Frog was widespread in Montana but it now appears to
be extinct throughout much of the western part of the state (Werner and Reichel 1994,
Werner et al. 1998). Its status is not clear in central Montana, and it appears that only
localized populations are present on the western edge of the plains (Reichel 1995a). It is still
relatively abundant and widespread across much of eastern Montana. Northern Leopard
Frogs were found at 5 of 6 historical sites surveyed within the Miles City District, BLM in
1998 (1 in Custer County, 2 in Roosevelt County, 3 in Rosebud County). In 1998, leopard
frogs were found on 58 surveys in 13 counties (Appendix 2) and during opportunistic
encounters in 4 additional counties (Appendix 4). Breeding was documented at 15 sites. It is
fairly common in southeastern Montana and northwestern South Dakota on the Ashland and
Sioux districts, Custer National Forest (Reichel 1995b, Hendricks and Reichel 1996, pers.
obs). Visher (1914) called it abundant in adjacent Harding County, South Dakota. Given its
dramatic declines in western Montana and other states and provinces, however, breeding sites
should be documented and a long-term monitoring program begun.

Montana Natural Heritage Program rank: G4 S3S4. Species of Special Concern.

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Common Snapping Turtle {Chelydra serpentina)

Description: The Common Snapping Turtle appears too large for its shell. The upper shell is
olive-gray, or brown to black with the posterior edge very serrated; it has three low keels with
protrusions positioned on each scute (a scale-like plate on the shell). The much-reduced
lower shell is cream-colored. A long, keeled tail and warty tubercles on the head and neck are
distinguishing characteristics. Males average about 10-20% larger than females, and have the
anal opening posterior to the rim of the upper shell (Ernst el al. 1994). Most aduhs range
from 13-30 pounds in Montana, the largest known Montana specimen was a 47-pound male
(Reichel and Flath 1995).

Eggs and Young. The spherical, white, tough-shelled eggs are about 23-33 mm in diameter
(Ernst et al. 1994). They typically number 20-40 per clutch (Ernst et al. 1994). Coloration of
young turtles is similar to adults and the upper shell is 24-3 1 mm long.

Similar Species: None.

Habits and Habitat; Snapping turtles occur in stock ponds, reservoirs, sloughs and backwaters,
rivers, irrigation ditches, and slower-moving streams, such as Otter Creek in Powder River
County (Hendricks and Reichel 1996). They prefer waters with a soft mud or sand bottom,
and much aquatic vegetation or debris (Ernst et al. 1994). They do occasionally move
overland, but are found doing so less frequently then Painted Turtles. Food is mostly animal
matter. In the north it is most active in the morning and evening (Ernst et al. 1994). Adult
females first breed at 12-19 years of age in Michigan and Ontario (Ernst et al. 1994). Eggs
are laid in nests excavated in sandy or gravelly areas or muskrat houses in late spring or early
summer. Sex is determined by the temperature of incubation (Ernst et al. 1994). Hibernation
is in soft bottoms, under cut-banks, or among submerged roots. Snapping Turtles have a
reputation for an evil temper, and are quick to bite. They can be handled safely if carried by
the tail with the upper shell a\i'ay from the captor.

Surveying: Although various turtle traps can be used for surveys, visual identification is suitable
for presence/absence studies since the three turtle species in Montana are easily distinguished.
Surveys should be done on sunny days with a pair of binoculars. During cold or cloudy
weather, turtles tend to remain underwater for long periods and can be missed on a walk-
through survey.

Status and Distribution: Common Snapping Turtles occur in the Yellowstone River downstream
from Billings, the Missouri River downstream from Ft. Benton, and probably all tributaries
(such as the Tongue River) with suitable water. There are no records downstream from Ft.
Peck Dam. They also occur in water bodies that can be reached by a short trek across land.
Eastern Montana records are few, widely scattered, but mostly concentrated in the coal
country of Rosebud and Powder River counties. Some snapping turtles are caught with
fishing tackle. Concentrated unregulated harvest could be detrimental to local populations.
Although not encountered in 1998, it is probably more abundant and widespread in eastern
Montana than records indicate. For example, there are no records in the MTNHP database
for Wibaux County, but a local farmer said they are resident in Beaver Creek south of Wibaux
(pers. comm. 1998). It should be watched for particularly in ponds, streams, and rivers; any
animals located on BLM lands should be documented.

Montana Natural Heritage Program rank: G5 S3. Species of Special Concern, BLM Special
Status Species.

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Spiny Softshell (Trionyx spiniferus) {=Apalone spinifera)

Description: Spiny Softshells have flexible, leathery shells. The carapace is olive-gray, marked
with dark spots. The plastron is white or light cream-colored. Female carapace length is up
to 18 inches or more, whereas males are typically 6-8 inches. The nostrils are terminal,
allowing this turtle to remain entirely beneath the surface and take air through its "snorkel."
Eggs and Young. The nest is a flask-shaped excavation containing 4-39 (typically 12-18) hard-
shelled, spherical, white eggs. The individual eggs range in size from 24-32 mm in diameter
and average about 28 mm. Hatchlings resemble adults and are 30-40 mm in shell length
(Ernsts/ a/. 1994).

Similar Species: None.

Habits and Habitat: Spiny Softshells are active during the day. This highly aquatic turtle is found
in rivers or their connecting backwaters with muddy or sandy bottoms. Unlike other Montana
turtles, they do not move overland from one water body to another. Mud and sand banks and
bars are used for both basking and nesting. Hibernation takes place beneath the water, usually
beneath 5-10 cm of bottom substrate (Ernst et al. 1994). The retracted head and neck
combines with the profile of the shell to produce a wedge shape, which allows this turtle to
escape by literally diving into the bottom mud. If necessar\', additional strokes of the legs will
completely bury it in the substrate, hidden from view. Food items include fish, crayfish, frogs,
toads, aquatic insects, and carrion. Spiny Soft-shells have a surprisingly long, agile neck and
can inflict a painfiil bite. They can be safely handled by grasping the shell on each side
between the front and rear legs with the head pointing cmay from the captor.

Surveying: various turtle traps can be used for surveys, although visual identification is suitable
since the three turtle species in Montana are easily distinguished. A pair of binoculars is
helpfiil and surveys should be done on warm sunny days; basking seldom takes place before
10:00 a.m. (Ernst et al. 1994). During cold or cloudy weather, turtles tend to remain
underwater for long periods and can be missed on a walk-through survey. Care should be
taken to watch for the snorkel-like nostrils projecting just above the surface of the water.

Status and Distribution: Status of this species in eastern Montana is uncertain, as it is reported
infrequently. It was not encountered during the 1998 surveys. It may be more common and
widespread than current records indicate. For example, this species has been seen 3
consecutive years (1995-1997) on the Tongue River in Rosebud and Custer counties near
Brandenburg. It is found mainly in the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers and their major
tributaries (such as the Tongue and Musselshell rivers). The Yellowstone and Missouri rivers
populations may be separated from each other, and are believed to be disjunct from the
population in South Dakota (Ernst et al. 1994); they have not been reported from North
Dakota (Wheeler and Wheeler 1966). The Missouri River population is known from the tail
of Fort Peck Reservoir upstream to the first dam, and from most of the Musselshell River.
They have not been reported from Fort Peck Reservoir or in the Missouri River downstream
from Fort Peck Dam. Any located on BLM lands should be documented and reported.

Montana Natural Heritage Program rank: G5 S3. Species of Special Concern, BLM Special
Status Species.

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Painted Turtle {Chrysemys picta)

Description: Adult Painted Turtles have a relatively flat dorsal shell, or carapace, the length of
which may reach 9" in females and 7" in males. The background color of the shell mav be dark
brown, olive, or black. A series of short, irregular yellow lines are often scattered across the
shell, and a red and black border forms the outer edge. The ventral shell, or plastron, is red
with a centrally-located yellow and black blotch with edges flaring out along the border of the
scutes. The edge of the plastron also has a series of black and yellow blotches The head,
neck, and legs are marked with yellow lines, and a red spot appears behind the e\e \'er\'
dark-colored individuals are occasionally found. Males are distinguished by longer front claws
and longer tails, with the anus posterior to the margin of the carapace (Ernst et al. 1994).
Eggs and Young. The elliptical, white, soft-shelled eggs are about 28-35 mm in length and 16-
23 mm in width (Ernst et al. 1994) They typically number 6-23 per clutch Coloration of
young Painted Tunles is more vibrant and the shell is not quite as flattened as in adults.

Similar Species: None.

Habitat and Habits: Painted Turtles are active during the day and are rarely seen far from ponds,
lakes, or the slow-moving water of streams. Painted Turtles obser\-ed during this survey were
usually in ponds or reservoirs. Aduhs are primarily herbivorous, feeding on a \-ariety of
aquatic plants, but will also sca\enge on animal remains. Eggs are usually laid within 10-20
feet of the water's edge, although some individuals will travel up to 600 m in search of a
suitable site. During egg-laying, the female excavates a hole with her hind feet and deposits
the eggs, which are then covered by several inches of dirt. Predation on turtle eggs bv
raccoons, skunks, etc. is common, and shell fragments are evidence of such activity. Female
Painted Turtles may lay more than one clutch of eggs each summer. Young bom of late
clutches overwinter in the nest and do not emerge until the following spring (Ernst et al.
1994). Once females lay their eggs, they return to the pond, where they can often be seen
basking on logs or rocks along with juveniles and males. During the 1998 survevs, adults
were seen between 4 April and 24 July (Appendix 2). Painted Turtles are sexuallv mature at
3-5 years of age and may live to be 30 years or older (Ernst et al. 1994).

Surveying: Various turtle traps can be used for surveys, although visual identification is suitable
for presence/absence studies, since the three turtle species in Montana are easily distinguished.
Basking peaks at different times during the day. depending on season and location; in the
northern states and Canada it generally peaks in the morning. Surveys should be done on
sunny days with a pair of binoculars During cold or cloudy weather, turtles tend to remain
underv\ater for long periods and can be missed on a walk-through survey.

Status: Painted Turtles are locally quite common across eastern Montana at lower elevations. In
1998. this species was documented on 13 surveys in 4 counties (.Appendix 2), and seen in 2
additional counties (Appendix 4). There has been heightened interest regarding recruitment in
Painted Turtle populations nationally. Declines are not known to have occurred in Montana,
but concern has been expressed regarding nest predation in some local populations (Com and
Hendncks 1998) It should be watched for on BLM lands, and any animals located should be
documented

Montana Natural Heritage Program rank: G5 S5.

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Short-horned Lizard (Phrynosoma hernandezi [= doiiglasi])

Description: The Short-homed lizard has a broad, somewhat flattened body and relatively short
limbs and tail. It is generally tan to gray with dark and light spots and blotches; the belly is
white. There is a distinctive line of pointed scales along each side, and the head has short,
blunt "horns" pointing backward. Adult lizards range from 1.7 - 5.5" in length.
Young. Young are live-bom and resemble small adults.

Similar species: None. Only one other lizard species in the region.

Habitat and Habits: Short-homed lizards are found in a variety of habitats, including dry open
forests, grasslands, and sagebmsh; the soil is usually loose or sandy. In firmer soil situations,
it may use the burrows of other animals. It is active during the day, typically with the peak of
activity in mid-late morning. A Short-homed Lizard may squirt blood from its eyes when
disturbed. Little is known about reproduction in this part of the range; young are born live in
late summer (Baxter and Stone 1985). A small juvenile was encountered on 1 1 September
1995 in Carbon County (Appendix 4). Ants are the primary food of the species.

Surveying: They may be surveyed by slowly walking through appropriate habitat and watching
carefully for them, looking especially near ant mounds. This technique has low success with
Short-homed Lizards however. As with many lizards and snakes, they are easily missed.
Carefully documented incidental observations may provide the best clues to their distribution.
They may be also taken in pitfall or funnel traps in combination with drift fences. A juvenile
was captured inadvertently in 1995 in a pitfall trap set for shrews (pers. observ.).

Status: The Short-homed Lizard was a former U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Category 2
Candidate species (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1994). It is widely distributed, but
apparently localized in eastem Montana. Although not encountered during the 1998 surveys,
the species is fairly common on the south side of the Pryor Mountains in Carbon County, and
there was one 1 998 record reported from that area. There are several other areas in
southeastem Montana where records are clustered. Although there are no records for
Montana counties bordering the Dakotas, there are several records from adjacent counties in
North Dakota (Wheeler and Wheeler 1966), and it was reported as common in Harding
County, South Dakota (Visher 1914), where it is still considered locally common (Stukel and
Backland 1997). This species may be vulnerable to collecting for the pet trade and
agricultural conversion of native habitats. It should be watched for in open pine, prairie, or
shrub-steppe habitat with loose or sandy soils, all sightings should be documented.

Montana Natural Heritage Program rank: G5 S4.

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Description: The Sagebrush Lizard is small (1.5 - 2.5" body length) and narrow-bodied. The
color pattern in adults consists of alternating dark and light stripes running down the back.
The colors are typically brown, gray, and cream. Males have mottled blue throat patches and
bright blue belly patches, while females are white or yellow below (Censky 1986). The body
and tail scales appear somewhat spiny.

Eggs and young: There are 2-7 tough, white leathery eggs in a clutch, averaging about 7.5 X
12 mm (Nussbaum el al. 1983). Body length of hatchlings is about 25 mm, and coloration is
similar to adults.

Similar species; None in the Miles City District, BLM region. The Short-homed Lizard has a
wide body.

Habitat and Habits: Sagebrush Lizards are found primarily in sagebrush areas, but also occur in
open forests and brush lands; they are found in both areas of fine soils and rocky outcrops
(Hammerson 1982a, Baxter and Stone 1985, Nussbaum etal. 1983). In the Yellowstone
area, they are found near thermal features (Mueller 1969). They are active during the day,
with peaks of activity around 10 a.m. and 4:30-5:30 p.m. (Hammerson 1982a). Females lay
eggs in loose or sandy soil in early summer; the young hatch in late summer. Small juveniles
were captured in Carbon County on 25 September 1995 (Appendix 4). They feed primarily
on insects and other arthropods.

Surveying: They may be surveyed for by slowly walking through appropriate habitat on warm,
sunny days and carefully watching for them; this technique is very eflFective for the Sagebrush
Lizard. However, as with many lizards and snakes, they may easily be missed if conditions are
not correct. Careftilly documented incidental observations provide excellent clues to their
distribution. They may be captured with a pole and noose or may be also taken in funnel traps
with drift fences. Adults and juveniles have been captured inadvertently in pitfall can traps set
for shrews (pers. observ). Mark-recapture methods offer the best opportunity for
determining population status.

Status: The Sagebrush Lizard was a former U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Category 2 Candidate
species (USFWS 1994). It is apparently locally common in southern Montana, from
Yellowstone Park eastward to at least Chalk Butte in Carter County. The species was
common in Carbon County on the south side of the Pryor Mountains in 1995 (Appendix 4).
This species was not encounter during the 1 998 surveys, but there was one 1 998 record from
Dawson County near Glendive. They are known from the western border of South Dakota
south of Harding County (C. R. Peterson pers. comm., Stukel and Backlund 1997), and two
disjunct populations are known from the western edge of North Dakota (Censky 1986). This
species should be watched for, and any animals located should be documented.

Montana Natural Heritage Program rank: G5 S4.

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Smooth Green Snake {Liochlorophis [=Opheodrys\ venialis)

Description: Smooth Green Snakes are small (about 16-20 inches total length) and slender.

Dorsal color is uniform grass green, the belly is white. Scales on the dorsum are smooth, each
nostril is centered in a single scale, and the anal scale is divided.

Similar species: The Racer can be green on the dorsum, but not as bright green as the Smooth
Green Snake. Racers in the size range of this species display a juvenile pattern of dark
patches that is similar to adult Gopher Snakes and not at all bright green. The nostril
contained within a single scale distinguishes this species from all other Montana snakes.

Habitat and Habits: Smooth Green Snakes are usually associated with dense herbaceous cover in
riparian sites, either in woodlands or more open county, but they occasionally wander into
drier habitats adjacent to riparian areas (Wheeler and Wheeler 1966, Hammerson 1982a).
When inactive or denning, they often occur under stones and boards, underground, or in
rotting logs. Terrestrial insects and spiders are the primary foods, but it sometimes feeds on
aquatic invertebrates. Lays clutches of 4-8 eggs rather than giving live birth. Eggs may hatch
in August (Baxter and Stone 1985), but nothing is known of reproduction in Montana. A
juvenile (24 cm total length) was found on 7 July 1998, but may not have been a young-of-
the-year.

Surveying: Walk-through surveys, especially through riparian habitats on relatively warm days,
are probably among the best methods for detecting this species. Turning over boards, logs
and rocks might reveal inactive individuals (Baxter and Stone 1985). Funnel traps used in
conjunction with drift fences may be useftil, but most sightings are likely to be opportunistic.

Status: The Smooth Green Snake is reported infrequently in Montana, perhaps because it is easily
overiooked. This species occurs regulariy at Medicine Lake National Wildlife Reftige in
Sheridan County (see Black and Bragg 1 968), although there were no confirmed records
(photographs or specimens) for Montana prior to 1998. Two specimens collected in Sheridan
County (Appendix 4) on 7 July and 28 August represent the first verified records for the state.
Currently, this species is reported from Sheridan and Roosevelt counties, but it is likely that
additional field work will reveal its presence in adjacent Daniels County, and perhaps on the
south side of the Missouri River in Richland and McCone counties (Hart et al. 1998).

Montana Natural Heritage Program rank: G5 S2S3. Species of Special Concern.

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Gopher Snake {Pituophis catenifer [=melanoleucus])

Description; Montana's largest snake, the adult Gopher Snake (also called Bullsnake or Pine
Snake) can reach a total length of 7 feet, but most specimens seen in western Montana range
from 3-5 feet. It is readily recognized by a series of large black to brown blotches which run
down the back, and another series along the sides. The blotches, which are set on a yellow
background, become more widely spaced and darker towards the tail. The dorsal scales are
keeled. There is usually a black band on the head located in front of and extending below the
eyes. The ventral coloration is yellow to white, often spotted with black, and the anal plate is
undivided.

Eggs and Young: Gopher Snakes lay between 2-24 eggs during the summer months
(Hammerson 1982a), and the young resemble the aduhs in coloration.

Similar species: Young Racers have a black border on dark blotches and the scales are not

keeled. Young Western Hognose Snakes have an upturned nose. Western Rattlesnakes have
a rattle on their tail and triangular-shaped heads.

Habitat and Habits: Gopher Snakes are associated with dry, arid habitats, including grassland,
shrub-steppe, and open pine forest. They feed on rodents, rabbits, ground-dwelling birds, and
to a lesser extent on frogs and toads found around stock ponds and other wetlands. They
have a habit of hissing and vibrating the tail when alarmed, often sounding like rattlesnakes.
They occasionally climb trees, hence the common name "Pine Snake." During the 1998
surveys, adults were encountered between 1 May and 22 July (Appendix 4).

Surveying: Walk-through surveys, done on a regular basis in warm, sunny weather, probably give
the best results without resorting to trapping techniques. Gopher Snakes are most easily
found near dens in the spring and fall. Funnel trapping is effective and they may occasionally
be found by night driving during the mid-summer. Many MTNHP records are documented
road-kills. Population data can be enhanced by mark-recapture techniques.

Status: The Gopher Snake is widespread in eastern Montana, and the most frequently

encountered large snake. There are records from all counties bounded by the Miles City
District, BLM, except Daniels County. This species was not detected during the 1998 site
surveys, but was encountered 1 1 times in 6 counties in 1998, and twice in Carbon County in
1995 (Appendix 4). Additional 1998 records came from Big Horn, Carbon, Dawson, and
Yellowstone counties. Although this is a common species, any sightings should still be
documented to fill distribution gaps. Of particular interest would be documentation of any
denning sites located.

Montana Natural Heritage Program rank: G5 S5.

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Racer {Coluber constrictor)

Description: A slender, but moderately long snake, the Racer ranges from 20-65 inches in length.
Adult coloration is uniform across the dorsal side, but it can vary from a greenish-gray to
brown or blue. The ventral side is whitish to pale yellow, the latter color extending onto the
upper lip scales and nasal region. The eyes are relatively large. The scales are smooth and the
nostril is bordered by two scales.

Young: Snakes (up to about 20") have a much different coloration than the adults, consisting
of a series of dorsal brown blotches edged with black which run the length of the animal; a
row of blotches is also found on each side of the animal extending onto the ventral side.

Similar species: Young Gopher Snakes may be distinguished by the keeled rather than smooth
scales of the young Racer. Young Western Hognose Snakes have an upturned nose. Smooth
Green Snakes are smaller and colored bright grass-green and whitish below; their nostrils are
centered in single scales. The Rubber Boa has very small eyes and is very slow and docile.

Habitat and Habits: The Racer is associated with more open habitats either in shortgrass, shrub-
steppe, or forested areas (Hammerson 1982a, Baxter and Stone 1985). It is often found near
water and rocks. The Racer is an extremely fast and agile snake. A clutch of perhaps 3-7
eggs is laid in the summer (Stebbins 1985). It preys on insects and small vertebrates such as
mice and frogs. Adults were documented in 1998 between 19 May and 28 June (Appendix 2).

Surveying: They may be surveyed for by slowly walking through appropriate habitat on warm,
sunny days and careftilly watching for them; this technique is moderately effective for the
Racer. However, as with many lizards and snakes, they may easily be missed. Careftilly
documented incidental observations may provide the best clues to their distribution. They
may be also taken in ftinnel traps with drift fences. Mark-recapture methods offer the best
opportunity for determining population status.

Status: The Racer is probably relatively common throughout much of eastern Montana, and was
the most frequently encountered snake on the Ashland District, Custer National Forest
(Hendricks and Reichel 1996). It was documented at 4 sites in 3 counties during the 1998
surveys (Appendix 2), and encountered 4 additional times in 4 counties (3 additional counties
to those of the site surveys: Appendix 4). Although this species may be fairly common, any
sightings should still be documented to help fill distribution gaps. Of particular interest would
be documentation of any denning sites located.

Montana Natural Heritage Program rank: G5 S5.

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Western Hognose Snake {Heterodon nasiciis)

Description: The Western Hognose Snake is a mid-sized, heavy-bodied snake reaching 32" The
dorsal ground color is yellowish- to grayish-brown, with 3 rows of darker brown to black
blotches running down the back The belly is dark gray to black, sometimes checkered. Its
nose has a keel on the top and is upturned.

Eggs and Young. Clutches have 7-15 eggs which are white and elliptical, with thin, papery
shells; length averages 32.5 mm (26-38 mm) and width 18 mm (14-23 mm). Young are 139-
197 mm at hatching and are similar in color and pattern to aduhs (Piatt 1969).

Similar Species: No other Montana snake has a keeled nose. Coloration is similar to both the
Gopher Snake, Western Rattlesnake and juvenile Racer.

Habits and Habitat: The Western Hognose Snake is found on the plains of eastern Montana. It
seems to prefer arid areas, farmlands and floodplains, and particulariy areas of gravelly or
sandy, loose soil. The keeled or shovel-like nose is thought to help it to dig down to its food,
which it finds by smell. Apparently toads are its preferred food, though frogs, insects, and
other small animals are also eaten (Piatt 1969). It is active primarily during the daylight hours.
Little is known of reproduction in Montana. It is likely that a female will only breed every
other year in Montana. Road-killed adults were encountered on 25 and 28 June in 1998.

The Hognose is famous for its behavior in the face of a threat. At first it will puff up its
neck, as does a cobra, and hiss and strike at its enemy. However, this is all a bluflf; very rarely
will it actually bite. If this threatening strategy does not work, it will pretend to die. It
appears to go into convulsions, writhing on the ground, sticking its mouth in the dirt, and
eventually rolling on its back and going into a trance that makes it appear to be dead. If
turned right-side-up, it will roll back over and continue its deception. If left alone for a few
minutes, it will right itself and continue on its way. The initial aggressive display and basic
rattlesnake-like coloration cause many to be killed needlessly by people who mistakenly
believe it to be venomous.

Surveying: They may be surveyed for by slowly walking through appropriate habitat and
carefijUy watching for them, conducting surveys on warm, sunny days enhances sampling
success. However, as with many lizards and snakes, they may easily be missed. Carefijlly
documented incidental observations may provide the best clues to their distribution. They
may be also taken in pitfall or funnel traps with drift fences. Mark-recapture methods offer
the best opportunity for determining population status.

Status: Western Hognose Snakes are widespread in eastern Montana, but apparently not very
abundant. There are relatively few reports of this species from Montana, even though they
have been documented in the state since the passage of Lewis and Clark in 1805 (Burroughs
1995). There are only 5 records in the MTNHP database from within the boundary of the
Miles City District, BLM since 1995. The species was encountered twice in 1998, from
Custer and Garfield counties (Appendix 4). Hognose snakes are collected for the pet trade,
and populations may be vulnerable to commercial collectors. Additionally, since toads are its
preferred food, any decline in toad populations would be expected to negatively impact
Western Hognose Snakes. Of particular interest would be documentation of any denning sites
located. All encounters with this species should be documented.

Montana Natural Heritage Program rank: G5 S3?. Species of Special Concern.

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Milk Snake {Lampropeltis triangidum)

Description: The Milk Snake is a slender and medium-sized snake (to 42 inches in length or

more), with smooth scales. It has a jighly recognizable series of red to orange saddles or rings
that are bordered by black bands and separated by white or yellow bands. Width of dark and
light bands can vary markedly. The subspecies in Montana (Z.. t. gentilis) tends to be paler,
with orange bands replacing red, and a light belly with few or no black spots.

Similar species: None in Montana.

Habitat and Habits: Little is known of Milk Snakes in Montana because only a few have been
reported. In Wyoming and elsewhere they are usually found near cliffs, talus, outcrops, and
rocky hillsides in forested and open country (Baxter and Stone 1985). They can be found in
or under rotten logs. Milk Snakes are secretive and most active at night. They eat a variety
of vertebrates, including other snakes, lizards, eggs, small mammals, and sometimes
invertebrates such as earthworms and insects. Eggs are laid in mid-summer. Milk Snakes
sometimes vibrate their tails when disturbed. Their name stems from an old tale alleging that
these snakes milk cows.

Surveying: Timed site surveys can be conducted around cliff bases and outcrops. Nocturnal

surveys may be the most productive Most distribution information, however, will likely come
from recording incidental sightings. More intensive research may be done using fijnnel traps
in combination with drift fences. The most intensive research and survey projects may use
mark-recapture or radio-telemetry techniques.

Status: Milk Snakes are very rare and local in Montana. There is only one record since 1995
(Powder River County, near Ashland) from within the boundary of the Miles City District
lands in the MTNHP database, although there are several older records from throughout the
district area. The majority of records are clustered at only a few sites, such as near Bridger in
Carbon County, and Billings in Yellowstone County. None were encountered during the
1998 inventory. The subspecies found in Montana is highly sought for the pet trade. All
records of Milk Snakes should be frjlly documented. Of special interest would be documented
denning sites.

Montana Natural Heritage Program rank: G5 S2. Species of Special Concern.

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Plains Garter Snake {Thamnophis radix)

Description: The Plains Garter Snake ranges from 16-42" in length and has a dorsal background
color of olive, brown, or black. It has a prominent orange or yellow dorsal stripe and a
greenish-yellow stripe on each side located on the 3rd and 4th scale rows above the belly
scales. It typically has black vertical bars on the upper lips.
Young. Young are live-bom and resemble adults.

Similar species: The other garter snakes found in Montana have the lateral yellow lines on the 2nd
and 3rd scale rows above the belly scales.

Habitat and Habits: Plains Garter Snakes are found in prairie habitats but are most common
around wetland areas, where they feed around permanent and semi-permanent water bodies.
In 1998, as many as 22 individuals, both adults (80-85 cm total length) and juveniles (30-40
cm total length) were seen along 400 m of shoreline at a single site (Blackfoot Reservoir,
Carter County); most were sunning in or near shallow water around the reservoir with little
emergent vegetation present. Fish, frogs, toads, mice and invertebrates are the most common
food items in the diet of the Plains Garter Snake (Hammerson 1982a, Baxter and Stone 1985).
Typical of most garter snakes, they emit a noxious secretion when handled and can be
aggressive when disturbed. The Plains Garter Snake is a live-bearer, giving birth to 9-21
young during mid- to late-summer in Colorado (Hammerson 1982a). In 1998, this species
was documented during surveys between 28 April and 24 July.

Surveying: Timed sight surveys may be conducted around wetlands and riparian feeding areas or
at denning areas where higher concentrations of garter snakes occur, clear mornings may be
the best survey times. Much distribution information may come from recording incidental
sightings. More intensive research may be done using funnel traps in combination with drift
fences. More intensive research and survey projects may use mark-recapture or
radiotelemetry techniques.

Status: This species is found over much of eastern Montana, particulariy in the far eastern and
north-central portions of the state. It is the most common garter snake in eastern Montana.
Former status is unclear due to conflision in the identification of the 3 garter snakes that occur
in the plains region. In 1998, this species was documented at 21 survey sites in 8 counties
(Appendix 2). There were 7 additional encounters in 6 counties (2 counties not included in
the survey records: Appendix 4). It should be watched for and any sightings should be
documented with a description written at the time of observation, including how radix was
distinguished from the other garter snakes. Of particular interest would be documentation of
any denning sites located.

Montana Natural Heritage Program rank: G5 S4.

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Western Terrestrial Garter Snake {Thamnophis elegans)

Description: Adult Western Terrestrial (or Wandering) Garter Snakes are smaller in body size
than the Common Garter Snake, their length varying from 18-43". Three yellow longitudinal
stripes are present (one dorsal, two lateral), but the dorsal stripe is much narrower than that of
the Common Garter Snake. A distinctive feature of the Western Terrestrial Garter Snake is a
series of alternating black spots which run the length of the body between, and somewhat on,
the yellow stripes. The background color between the stripes tends to be more gray
compared to the dark brown found in the Common Garter Snake. The ventral surface has a
series of dark black/brown blotches which may cover most of the surface. The dorsal scales
are keeled, and there are normally 8 upper labial scales.
Young: The coloration of young snakes is similar to that of the adults; young are live-bom.

Similar species: See Common and Plains Garter Snakes.

Habitat and Habits: The habitat and habits of the Western Terrestrial Garter Snake are similar to
the Common Garter Snake (i.e., they are found in most habitats but are particularly common
around wetlands). Females give birth to 4-19 young during the summer (Stebbins 1985).
Records of adults from the Ashland area (Powder River County) were made between 28 June
and 22 July at reservoirs or along streams (Hendricks and Reichel 1996).

Surveying: Timed sight surveys may be conducted around wetlands and riparian feeding areas or
at denning areas where higher concentrations of garter snakes occur, clear mornings are best
for surveys. Much distributional information may come from recording incidental sightings.
More intensive research may be done using funnel traps in combination with drift fences.
More intensive research and survey projects may use mark-recapture or radiotelemetry
techniques.

Status: Western Terrestrial Garter Snakes are most common in the western half of Montana, and
are much less abundant on the plains, especially in the eastern third of the state. There are no
records from the northeastern quarter This species was not recorded during the 1998
surveys, but there were 1998 reports from Carbon and Yellowstone counties. There are only
about 10 records since 1995 from within the boundaries of the former Miles City District. All
records of garter snakes should be documented until the distribution of the three species is
better understood; of particular interest would be documentation of denning sites.

Montana Natural Heritage Program rank: G5 S5.

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Description: The Common Garter Snake consists of two color phases in western Montana, and
ranges from 18-52" in length. Both phases have three yellow longitudinal stripes: one located
dorsally and one on each side. Between the yellow stripes is a black stripe broken with red
spots in one color phase but lacking red in the other. The form lacking red spots is not known
from eastern Montana, but may be present there and should be watched for. Ventral
coloration varies from yellow to bluish, and some individuals of the red-sided color phase
have small black spots on the edge of the ventral scales. The dorsal scales are keeled, and
normally there are 7 upper labial scales.
Young. The coloration of young snakes is similar to that of the adults; young are live-bom.

Similar species: The Western Terrestrial Garter Snake has black spots overlapping the dorsal
yellow stripe; the background color between stripes tends to be brownish. The Plains Garter
Snake has the side yellow stripe on the 3rd and 4th scale rows above the belly scales and the
dorsal stripe is often orange or red.

Habitat and Habits: Garter snakes are found in all forest habitats but are more common at lower
elevations around marsh-bog-pond situations, where they prey on young fish, frogs, toads,
mice and invertebrates. They are sometimes confiised with water snakes because of their
frequent aquatic exploits; in reality there are no "true" water snakes in Montana. Typical of
most garter snakes, they emit a noxious secretion when handled and can be aggressive when
disturbed. Garter snakes eat a variety of vertebrates and invertebrates, with the Common
Garter Snake concentrating more on amphibians than the Western Terrestrial Garter Snake.
The Common Garter Snake is a live-bearer, giving birth to 12-18 young during the summer in
Colorado (Hammerson 1982a). This species was seen only once in 1998, on 23 April
(Appendix 2).

Surveying: Timed-sight surveys may be conducted around wetlands and riparian feeding areas or
at denning areas where higher concentrations of garter snakes occur; clear mornings are the
best survey times. Much distributional information may come from recording incidental
sightings. More intensive research may be done using ftinnel traps in combination with drift
fences. More intensive research and survey projects may use mark-recapture or
radiotelemetry techniques.

Status: Common Garter Snakes are most common in western Montana, and infrequently reported
from the plains of eastern Montana. There are only 5 records from the eastern half of the
state since 1995. The single record for 1998 was made at Armells Creek in Rosebud County
(Appendix 2). Some previous reports of this species may actually be misidentified Plains
Garter Snakes. The Common Garter Snake appears to have a very patchy distribution in
Wyoming (Baxter and Stone 1985), and this might be the case in eastern Montana as well. All
records of garter snakes should be thoroughly documented until the distribution of the three
species is better understood; of particular interest would be documentation of denning sites.

Montana Natural Heritage Program rank: G5 S5.

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Western Rattlesnake {Crotalus viridis)

Description: Rattlesnakes have a heat-sensing pit located between the nostril and the eye. The
fangs are hollow and hinged, allowing them to be folded back against the roof of the mouth.
The head is triangular in shape and blunt-nosed. There are several white lines which run along
the side of the head. Adult Western Rattlesnakes a stout body with total length ranging from
15-60 inches. The dorsal background color varies from pale green to brown with a series of
brown or black blotches edged with a dark and then light line extending the length of the
body. The blotches often merge into rings on the tail. There are also blotches on the sides of
the body. The ventral side is pale yellow to white and without blotches. The scales are
keeled. The tail ends in a rattle which helps to warn potential predators of the snake's
presence. The young have the same color pattern, but are brighter in color than aduhs.

Similar species: No other snake in Montana has rattles, but see Racer, Gopher Snake and Western
Hognose Snake which may have similar color patterns.

Habitat and Habits: The Western Rattlesnake is an inhabitant of more open and arid country, but
it is also found in Ponderosa pine stands or mixed-grass coniferous forests. It is more likely to
be encountered on south-facing slopes and areas of rock outcrops. It is feared due to its
poisonous bite and therefore often needlessly killed. Rattlesnakes may den in large numbers,
moving up to 7 miles out from the dens during the summer (Peterson, pers. comm.); den sites
are most common in south-facing talus slopes. In Wyoming, it is found at elevations of over
8500 feet (Baxter and Stone 1985). Rattlesnakes prey on a variety of animals including mice,
ground squirrels, rabbits, amphibians, and other snakes. Females in Colorado give birth to 4-
21 live young during the summer (Hammerson 1982a). In 1998, this species was seen
between 4 May and 22 July (Appendix 4). In 1995 in Carbon County, they were reported
between 2 July (a juvenile, 39 cm total length) and 1 1 September. Most records from the
Ashland and Sioux districts, Custer National Forest are from June and July (Reichel 1995,
Hendricks and Reichel 1996), but one was reported on 27 September 1995.

Surveying: Walk-through surveys on warm sunny days are probably among the best methods for
determining presence/absence. This species is easiest to find near den sites in spring and fall.
Funnel traps and night driving are both efi'ective techniques. Snakes are often encountered
sunning on roads in the morning. Mark-recapture methods can be used to determine more
precise numbers.

Status: The Western Rattlesnake is more common in eastern Montana than MTNHP records
indicate. Most encounters with this species do not get reported. In 1998, the species was
recorded 4 times from 4 counties (Appendix 4), and 4 more times from Carbon County in
1995. Other 1998 reports are from Stillwater and Yellowstone counties. The species is
widespread across the eastern part of the state. Nevertheless, there are no records whatsoever
from the 3 northeastern counties north of the Missouri River, and no records from north of
the river in adjacent North Dakota (Wheeler and Wheeler 1966) or Saskatchewan (Secoy and
Vincent 1976). The habit of denning at traditional sites in large numbers makes rattlesnakes
vulnerable to commercial collecting or simply killing by fearfiil people. Observations of
Western Rattlesnakes should be reported to document the presence of this species elsewhere
and to fill in distribution gaps, of particular interest would be documentation of any denning
sites located.

Montana Natural Heritage Program rank: G5 S4.

48

Species marginal, historical, or potentially present within the Miles City District, BLM

This section lists 1) species whose affinities are generally restricted to montane habitats of the
western third of the state, 2) species not documented in over 30 years from within the boundaries
of the former Miles City District, and 3) species that might still be documented from within the
boundaries of the former district. None of the species discussed in this section, except perhaps
species from the first category, are very likely to be recorded from lands under BLM stewardship
in the former Miles City District. Even the marginal species are unlikely to be recorded on the
very small tracts that occur in the far southwestern counties (Stillwater, Sweet Grass, and
Wheatland) without concentrated and repeated survey effort.

1) Marginal Species

Western Toad (Bufu boreas). There are 3 records in the Miles City District, from Carbon
County (West Fork Rock Creek in the Beartooth Mountains), Sweet Grass County (near Big
Timber) and Wheatland County (near Hariowton). This species is a typical montane form found
in intermontane valleys to treeline, and unlikely to be found very far from mountain habitats.
Adults are distinguished from other Montana toads by lacking cranial crests

Columbia Spotted Frog {Rana luteiveutris [=pretiosa]). There are 3 records from the Beartooth
Mountains (East Rosebud Creek) and Crazy Mountains (Big Timber Creek) in the far western
region of the Miles City District in Carbon and Sweet Grass counties. This species is found in
western Montana in intermountain valleys to treeline, and is unlikely to be encountered far from
mountains. An isolated population is reported from the Big Horn Mountains in Wyoming
(Dunlap 1977), and may occur in the portions of this range that cross the border into Montana in
Big Horn County. Columbia Spotted Frogs can be distiguished from Northern Leopard Frogs by
noting a) spot pattern (smaller on spotted frogs with a light point in the middle of a dark spot,
while leopard frog spots are larger, with a dark middle surrounded by a lighter halo), and b)
ventral leg color (undersides of spotted frog legs are reddish-orange while those of leopard frogs
are white to cream-colored).

Rubber Boa {Charina bottae) There is only 1 record of this species in the Miles City District,
from along the Boulder River in the Absaroka Mountains of Sweet Grass County. This is the
only boa in Montana and cannot be confiised with any other native snake. The eyes and scales are
very small, the tip of the tail is blunt and similar to the head-end. The back is uniform brown or
dull green, and the belly cream to tan.

2) Historical Species

Canadian Toad {Bufo hemiophrys) This species has been documented (confirmed) only once in
the Miles City District and in Montana Two adults were collected at a pothole 1 mi W of
Flaxville, Daniels County, on 30 July 1966 (Black and Bragg 1968) Because no additional
records have been reported in > 30 years, the species is considered historical in Montana There
have been few additional surveys in the far northeastern counties, so the species may yet reappear.
The Flaxville site was visited in 1998 (Appendix 1), but only Northern Leopard Frogs were

49

detected during the survey (Appendix 2). This species is distinguished from other Montana toads
by having parallel cranial crests fused into a lump between the eyes and lacking post-orbital
extensions of the crests. Woodhouse's Toad lacks the lump between the eyes and has well-
developed post-orbital crests; Great Plains Toad has converging cranial crests and well-developed
post-orbital crests, but also has large white-bordered dark dorsal patches that the Canadian Toad
lacks.

3) Potential Species

Wood Frog {Rana sylvatica). This species is not yet known to occur in Montana, although there
are a couple of non-breeding records from inappropriate habitat that are considered as
introductions. The species might occur in eastern Montana in the Big Horn Mountains of Big
Horn County. Wood Frogs have been documented from the Wyoming portion of the mountain
range (Dunlap 1977). Wood Frogs are found near water in forested habitats, especially in small
natural ponds and sometimes in backwaters and beaver ponds. It is unlikely to be documented on
lands under BLM stewardship in eastern Montana. Aduhs have a prominent black facial mask
extending from the snout to behind the external ear drum. There may be some spotting on the
back, and the belly is white to cream-colored.

50

RECOMMENDATIONS

Surveys and Research

1) Incidental sightings of amphibians and reptiles from the Miles City District should be recorded
and forwarded to the Natural Heritage Program. Of particular interest are all observations and
locations of breeding amphibians (tadpoles and/or eggs) and all reptiles. Use Reichel and Flath
(1995) as an identification aid. Vouchers of amphibian tadpoles can be sent to the Natural
Heritage program for identification. The Natural Heritage website has an online form for
submitting amphibian and reptile observation data at http://nris.mt.gov/mtnhp/index.html .

2) Due to the time constraints and the large area covered in this survey, it should not be regarded
as a definitive index of all the amphibians and reptiles or their presence on the surveyed area. The
secretive habits of many amphibians and reptiles, and our lack of knowledge regarding their
reproductive behavior make it difficult to assess their overall status. We recommend that
additional surveys be conducted.

3) Long-term monitoring of typical marsh-pond habitats at several sites in the Miles City District
should be established. Sites might include Ute Reservoir in Carter County, Beardsiey Reservoir in
Custer County, Bailer Reservoir in Dawson County, Upper Labell Reservoir in Dawson County,
the reservoir on the branch of Snap Creek in Garfield County, Split Reservoir in McCone County,
Clark, Silvertip, and Homestead reservoirs in Prairie County, Missouri River oxbow pond in
Richland County, and Armells Creek oxbow marsh and Sunday Butte reservoir in Rosebud
County (see Appendix 1 and 2). These monitoring sites permit assessment of population trends
and breeding success of the more common species: Tiger Salamander, Western Chorus Frog,
Woodhouse's Toad, Northern Leopard Frog, and Plains Garter Snake. Particular attention needs
to be given to any toad and Northern Leopard Frog breeding sites found. Life history and
ecology of the amphibians in Montana is still poorly known for most species. Long-term
monitoring will provide information on timing of breeding and habitat requirements needed for
successful reproduction, as well as the kind of information needed for successflil management of
local populations.

Management

1 ) With an increasing number of amphibian species declining for a variety of reasons, it is
reasonable to manage habitat to support them. While not all ways of preserving and
protecting these species are currently known, several management actions could impact them
negatively. Amphibians cannot survive without adequate breeding sites, and the type of water
used is often species-specific.

A) Stocking fish in ponds and reservoirs currently lacking fish, and in which amphibians
breed, should be carefully evaluated. Fish introductions are thought to be a major factor
negatively impacting amphibian populations in California (Hayes and Jennings 1986,
Fellers and Drost 1993, Drost and Fellers 1996) and Oregon (Kiesecker and Blaustein
1998). It may even be desirable to remove introduced fish from some water bodies.

B) When altering springs and seeps for livestock, protect a portion of the area that is suitable

51

for amphibian reproduction. This could include small fenced exclosures above water
diversions to stock tanks, water from natural springs and seeps should not be divened
immediately into stock tanks, as this could exclude amphibians from access to the water.
At sites with significant overflow from wells and tanks, consider creating livestock
exclosures along portions of the outflow. Consider fencing off sections of ponds and
reservoirs that include shoreline emergent vegetation. This provides egg-laying sites and
cover to immature amphibians, and also provides adults and immature stages with refugia
from trampling by livestock Exclosures at ponds and smaller reser\oirs should be
designed to account for water loss during evaporative drawdown, and encompass some
water that wdll last at least to mid-August if possible.
C) Create new ponds exclusively for amphibians to which livestock are excluded Creation of
buffer zones (Semlitsch 1998) around these sites (and other sites as well) should also be
considered, as the standing water in wetlands is used primarily for breeding and
tadpole/larval development, not for much of adult activity by several species of semi-
aquatic amphibians (such as Tiger Salamanders and the toads). Semi-aquatic species may
disperse from large distances (> 2 km perhaps) to wetland sites to breed. .A.dult habitats
also need to be considered in any active management program for amphibians.

2) A critical component of the life cycle in snakes is the wintering den. Many species hibernate
in large aggregations at traditional den sites Often these hibemacula are used by more than
one species (Koch and Peterson 1995), and mating often takes place at or near the den site.
Snakes then move away from dens for as much as 6 miles in summer, returning in the fall to
over-winter. These sites typically are situated where snakes can get well down into an area of
fractured rock, often near cliffs or in talus slopes. While these sites are robust, they are
vulnerable to disturbance, such as road building, or vandalism and over-collecting. Den sites
should be documented and protected Fencing around dens might be suitable in some
situations to exclude livestock. Sites should be monitored annually to determine use and
relative abundance of species present. Den locations should be revealed only to responsible
individuals. The Western Rattlesnake and Milk Snake are of special concern. Rattlesnakes
are subjected to needless killing by the public at large, and susceptible to harvesting by
unauthorized individuals selling venom and meat for commercial purposes. Local
exnermination is a real possibility. Milk Snakes are highly valued by the pet trade, and over-
harvest at dens is a real possibility Den site locations of this species should be shared only
under special circumstances.

3) Traditional nesting sites of Common Snapping Turtles and Spiny Softshells. both BLM
Special Status species, should be protected from disturbance of any kind, through use of
livestock exclosures if necessary. Most nesting sites, however, will be near larger rivers and
tributaries in sandy and sand-deposition sites, and subjected to flooding and shifts in channels.
Protection of individual nests may include establishing predator exclosures around clutches.
This would be necessary- only if it is e\ident that predators (skunks and raccoons in particular)
are destroying an exceptional number of nests. Predation of turtle nests is often >50% in
many areas, but '"normal" predation rates for Montana populations are not known.

52

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bj'^ter, G. T. and M. D. Stone. 1985 Amphibians and reptiles of Wyoming. Second edition.
Wyoming Game and Fish Department. Cheyenne, Wyoming. 137 pp.

Bergeron, D. No date. Terrestrial wildlife survey, Coal Creek Mine Area, Montana, 1977-1978.
West Tech. & Eng., Inc., Helena

Bernard, S. R. and K. F. Brown. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by
BLM physiographic regions and A. W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven Western States.

Black, J. H. 1967. A blue leopard frog from Montana. Herpetologica 23 (4):314-315.

Black, J. H 1969. The frog genus Rana in Montana. Northwest Sci. 43:191-195.

Black, J. H. 1970. Amphibians of Montana. Mont. Fish «& Game Dept, Pub. No. 1 of
Animals of Montana Series.

Black, J. H. 1970. Some aspects of the distribution, natural history and zoogeography of the
toad genus Bufo in Montana. M.S. thesis, University of Montana, Missoula.

Black, J. H. 1970. Turtles of Montana. Montana Wildlife, Animals of Montana Series 2:26-32.

Black, J. H. 1971. The toad genus Bufo in Montana. Northwest Sci. 45:156-162.

Black, J. H. and A. M. Bragg. 1968. New additions to the herpetofauna of Montana.
Herpetologica 24:247.

Black, J. H. andR. B. Brunson. 1971. Breeding behavior of the boreal toad 5///o ior^a.y
Af>/-t?af.v (Baird and Girard) in western Montana. Great Basin Nat. 31: 109-113.

Black, J. H. and V. Craig (eds.). 1970. Amphibians of Montana. Montana Wildlife, Animals of
Montana Series 1:1-32.

Bragg, A. N. 1940. Observations on the ecology and natural history of Anura. I. Habits,
habitat and breeding of i^M/o co^//a///.v Say. Amer. Nat. 74:322-438.

Breckenridge, W. J. and J. R Tester. 1961. Growth, local movements, and hibernation of the
Manitoba toad, Bufo hemiophrys. Ecology 42:637-646.

Brunson, R. B. 1952. Recent collections of Bufo boreas boreas from western Montana. Proc.
Montana Acad. Sci. 11:17-19.

Brunson, R. B. 1955. Check list of the amphibians and reptiles of Montana. Proc. Mont.

53

Academy Sci. 15:27-29.

Brunson, R. B, and H. A. Demaree, Jr. 1951. The herpetology of the Mission Mountains,
Montana. Copeia 1951:306-308.

Bureau of Land Management. 1982. Bloomfield - North Fork baseline inventories - wildlife.
Miles City, MT.

Burroughs, R. D. 1995. The natural history of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Michigan State
University Press, East Lansing. 340 pp.

Bury, R. B., P. S. Com, K. B. Aubry, F. F. Gilbert, and L. L. C. Jones. 1991. Aquatic amphibian
communities in Oregon and Washington. USDA For. Serv., Pacific NW Res. Station Gen Tech.
Rep. PNU'-GTR-285:353-362.

Camp, Dresser, and McKee, Inc. 1981. Anaconda Stillwater project 12-month environmental
baseline report. Tech. Rpt. for Anaconda Copper Co.

Carey, C. 1993. Hypothesis concerning the causes of the disappearance of boreal toads from the
mountains of Colorado. Conservation Biology 7(2):355-362.

Censky, E. J. 1986. Sceloponis graciosus. Cat. Amer. Amphibians and Reptiles 386.1-4.

Conant, R. 1975. A field guide to reptiles and amphibians of eastern and central North America.
Second edition. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, xvii + 429 pp.

Cope, E. D. 1879. A contribution to the zoology of Montana. American Naturalist 13:432-441.

Com, J., and P. Hendricks. 1998. Lee Metcalf National Wildlife Reflige bullfrog and painted
turtle investigations: 1997. Montana Natural Heritage Program. Helena, MT. 20 pp.

Com, P. S. No Date. Comment on the occurrence of Pseudacris clarki in Montana. Bull. Chi.
Herp. Soc. 15(3):77-78.

Com, P. S. and J. C. Fogelman. 1984. Extinction of montane populations of northem leopard
^rog{Rana pipiens) 'mCo\ox2i(\o. J. Herpetol. 18:147-152.

Craig, V. No date. The Axolotl "Walking Fish." Montana Outdoors? 2 pp.

Cutright, P. R. 1989. Lewis and Clark: pioneering naturalists. University of Nebraska Press,
Lincoln. 506 pp.

Davis, C. V. and S. E. Weeks. 1963. Montana Snakes. Montana Dept. of Fish and Game,
Helena, MT, pp. 1-10.

54

Diller, L. V., and R. L. Wallace. 1996. Comparative ecology of two snake species {Crotahis
viridis and Pituophis melanoleucus) in southwestern Idaho Herpetologica 52:343-360.

Dood, A. R. 1980. Terry Badlands nongame survey and inventory: final report Montana
Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Parks BLM Contract #YA-512-CT8-217. 70 pp.
Drost, C. A., and G. M. Fellers. 1996. Collapse of a regional fi"og fauna in the Yosemite area of
the California Sierra Nevada, USA. Conservation Biology 10:414-425.

Dunlap, D. G. 1977. Wood and Western Spotted fi^ogs (Amphibia, Anura, Ranidae) in the Big
Horn Mountains of Wyoming. Journal of Herpetology 11:85-87,

Dunlap, D. G., and K. C. Kruse. 1976. Frogs of the Rana pipiem complex in the northern and
central plains states. Southwestern Naturalist 20:559-571.

Econ, Inc. 1974. Terrestrial wildlife inventory for the Lame Jones and Ismay coal lease tracts.
Tech. Rpt.

Ernst, C. H. 1971. Chrysemys picta. Cat. Am. Amph. Rep. 106.1-106.4.

Ernst, C. H, J. E. Lovich, and R. W. Barbour. 1994. Turtles of the United States and
Canada. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC. 578 pp.

Farmer, P. J. and K. Burgess. 1983. Jardine area baseline terrestrial wildlife study. May 15,
1 981 -May 15, 1982, for Homestake Mining Co. West. Tech. Eng., Helena.

Farmer, P J. and K. Burgess. 1984. Jardine area baseline terrestrial wildlife study. West.
Tech & Eng., Helena.

Farmer, P. J. No date. Terrestrial wildlife survey. Pearl area, Montana, June, 1976 - June, 1977.
Westech, Inc., Helena, MT.

Farmer, P. J, S. B. Heath, D. J. Bergeron and K. L. Scow. 1985. Montana Tunnels project-
baseline terrestrial wildlife study. Westech, Inc., Helena, MT. for Centennial Minerals, Inc.

Feighley, H. P. 1997. Colonial nesting bird survey on the Bureau of Land Management
Lewistown District: 1996. Montana Natural Heritage Program. Helena, MT. 27 pp [herp
locations in appendix]

Fellers, G. M., and C. A. Drost. 1993. Disappearance of the Cascades Frog Rana cascadae at
the southern end of its range, California, USA. Biological Conservation 65:177-181.

Finch, D. M. 1992. Threatened, endangered, and vulnerable species of terrestrial vertebrates in
the Rocky Mountain Region USFS General Technical Rep. RM-215. 38 pp.

Fitch, H. S. 1980. Thamnophis sirkilis Cat. Am. Amph. Rep. 270.1-270 4.

55

Western Chorus Frog {Pseudacris triseriata)

Description: Adults are very small (0.75-1.5") and have tiny, almost unnoticeable toe pads. They
have a dark line extending from the snout through the eye to the groin. Basic coloration is
quite variable with the background color being green, brown, gray, or reddish. Typically 3-5
dark longitudinal stripes are present on the head and back which may be broken up into spots
on some individuals.

Eggs and Tadpoles: Eggs are laid in small clusters of 10-100, usually less than 1 " across and
attached to submerged vegetation (Wheeler and Wheeler 1966, Baxter and Stone 1985).
Individual eggs are about 1 mm in diameter. Tadpoles are brown/bronze and the eyes are
located on the sides of the head.

Similar species: Has tiny toe pads. Recently metamorphosed Ranid frogs could be confused with
this species, but the coloration differs and the tiny toe pads are lacking. Eye position
distinguishes the tadpoles.

Habitat and Habits: Western Chorus Frogs are regularly found in the water only during the

breeding period in spring. Their presence is obvious during this time due to their call, which is
given frequently at night and sporadically throughout the day. Calls were frequently heard
until late June. Eggs or tadpoles were found in ponds from 24 April to 22 July in 1998.
However, the species was detected (tadpoles) on only 1 of 14 July site surveys. For standard
site surveys (i.e., excluding nocturnal roadside call surveys) in 1998 where the species was
present (n = 61), tadpoles were detected in 1 of 20 April surveys, 12 of 19 May surveys, and
17 of 22 June surveys (G = 28.016, df = 2, P < 0.001), indicating a peak of breeding in May
and June. Following breeding, these frogs move into adjacent uplands and are rarely seen. In
eastern Montana, they breed in temporary ponds and small lakes surrounded by prairie, in
some locations in Montana they are also found in open forested habitats. Eggs hatch in about
2 weeks and tadpoles are about 2 months old at metamorphosis (Wheeler and Wheeler 1966,
Nussbaum et al. 1983).

Surveying: Adults are easy to survey, using their calls for identification during the breeding season
in spring and early summer. During the breeding season, adults may also be seen in the water,
but their small size and habit of freezing or diving when disturbed makes observation difficult,
night surveys may be more productive. Egg masses are difficuh to find. Tadpoles may be
seen in ponds during the day and can be sampled with a dipnet.

Status: Common across the prairies of eastern Montana, including throughout the Miles City
District, BLM, and the most frequently encountered amphibian in eastern Montana. This
species was found on 69 surveys in 12 counties in 1998 (Appendix 2), and in Carbon County
on 1 survey (and 5 opportunistic encounters) in 1995 (Appendix 3b and 4).

Montana Natural Heritage Program rank: G5 S5.

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Fitch, H. S. 1983. Thamnophis elegans. Cat. Am. Amph. Rep. 320.1-320.4.

Fitch, H. S. and T. P. Maslin. 1961. Occurrence of the garter snake, r/?a/w/o/;/7/5 5/>/a//5, in
the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains. University of Kansas Publications, Museum of Natural
History 13(5):289-308.

Flath, D. L. 1981. Vertebrate species of special concern. Montana Department of Fish,
Wildlife, and Parks. 74 pp.

Flath, D. L. 1984. Vertebrate species of special interest or concern: mammals, birds, reptiles,
amphibians, fishes. Wildlife Division, Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Parks. 76 pp.

Gehlbach, F. R. 1967. Ambystoma tigrimtm . Cat. Am. Amph. Rep. 52.1-52.4.

Gibbons, J. W, S. S. Novak and C. H. Ernst. 1988. Chelydra serpentina. Cat. Am. Amph.
Rep. 420.1-420.4.

Halliday, T., and K. Adler. 1991. Encyclopedia of reptiles and amphibians. Facts on File, New
York. 143 pp.

Hammerson, G. A. 1982a. Amphibians and reptiles in Colorado. Colorado Division of Wildlife,
Denver, vii + 131 pp.

Hammerson, G. A. 1982b. Bullfrog eliminating leopard frogs in Colorado? Herpetol. Rev.
13:115-116.

Hart. M. M., W. A. Williams, P. C. Thornton, K. P. McLaughlin, C. M. Tobalske, B. A. Maxell,
D. P. Hendricks, C. R. Peterson, and R. L. Redmond. 1998. Montana atlas of terrestrial
vertebrates. Unpublished report. Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, The University
of Montana, Missoula, vii +1302 pp.

Hendricks, P. 1996. Geographical distribution. Thamnophis elegans vagrans. Herpetological
Review 27(2):89.

Hendricks, P., and J. D. Reichel. 1996. Preliminary amphibian and reptile survey of the Ashland
District, Custer National Forest: 1995. Montana Natural Heritage Program. Helena, MT. 79 pp.

Hendricks, P., and J. D. Reichel. 1998. Amphibian and reptile survey on Montana refuges: 1996.
Montana Natural Heritage Program. Helena, MT. 19 pp.

Heyer, W. R., M. A. Donnelly, R. W. McDiarmid, L. C. Hayek, and M. S. Foster (eds.). 1994.
Measuring and monitoring biological diversity: Standard methods for amphibians. Smithsonian
Institute Press, Washington, D.C. 364 pp.

56

Holroyd, G L , G Bums and H. C. Smith (eds). 1991. Proceedings of the second endangered
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Wildlife, Nov. 1970. Mont. Fish & Game Dept.

Kerfoot, W. C. 1968 Geographic variability of the lizard, Sceloporns graciosus Baird and
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Bass on microhabitat use, growth, and survival of native Red-legged Frogs {Rana aurora).
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Koch, E. D., and C. R. Peterson. 1995. Amphibians and reptiles of Yellowstone and Grand
Teton national parks. University of Utah Press. Salt Lake City, Utah. 188 pp.

Koonz, W. H. 1993. Amphibians in Manitoba, pp. 273-275. IN: Holroyd, G. L, H. L.
Dickson, M. Regnier and H. C. Smith (eds). Proceedings of the Third Prairie Conservation and
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PP-

Leonard, W. P., H. A. Brown, L. L. C. Jones, K. R. McAlHster, and R M. Storm. 1993
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Matthews, W. L. 1980. Wibaux-Beach comparison study: Sidney, Glendive and Plevna study
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57

McEneaney, T. and J Jensen. 1974. The reptiles and amphibians of the Charles M. Russell
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Micken, L. 1968. Some summer observations on the tiger salamander, Ambystoma tigriniim, in
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Micken, L. 1971 . Additional notes on neotenic Ambystoma tigrimim melatiostictum in Blue
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Miller, J. D. 1978. OhstvJZXions on \.h.Q (^itioi Rana pretiosa, Raim pipiens, and Biifo boreas
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Montana Department of State Lands and U. S. Office of Surface Mining. 1982. Final EIS,
Western Energy Company's Rosebud Mine Area C, Block 1 .

Montana Department of State Lands No date. Draft EIS, proposed plan of mining and
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Mosimann, J. E. and G. B. Rabb. 1952. The herpetology of Tiber Reservoir Area, Montana.
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Mueller, C. F. 1969. Temperature and energy characteristics of the sagebrush lizard (5cf/o/70/-//5
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Mueller, F. C. and R. E. Moore. 1969. Growth of the sagebrush lizard, 5c^/o/;on/5^ac/'o5z/5,
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Nelson, D. J. 1948. Lampropeltis triangulum gentilisinMontana. Herpetologica 4:170.

Nelson, D. J. 1950. Lampropehis trianguhim gentilis'mMontana. Herpetologica 6:41.

Nussbaum, R. A., E. D. Brodie, Jr. and R. M. Storm. 1983. Amphibians and reptiles of the
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Olson, D. H., W. P. Leonard, and R. B. Bury (eds.). 1997. Sampling amphibians in lentic
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Olson-Elliott and Associates. 1979. Environmental impact of the northern tier pipeline in
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Olson-Elliott and Associates. 1980. Terrestrial wildlife inventory, Montco wildlife study area.
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58

Ortenburger, A. 1. 1921. An eastern record and note on C/wr/z/a 6o//ae (Blainville). Copeia
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Peterson, C. R., E. D. Koch and P. S Com. 1992. Monitoring amphibian populations in
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Phillips, K. 1990. Where have all the frogs and toads gone'' BioScience 40:422-424.

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62

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