TIGHT BINDING BOOK page missed in the hnnk CO CO g] the Uraon religious and secular heads, and at each house the branches are anointed with the oil and scarlet powder which are 43 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA part of the apparatus of a marriage. The bfan^hes are then thrown into a stream." "It is considered both meritorious and exciting," saysA^errier Elwin, "to plant trees. The Gond or Pordhan who does this generally has a great desire to perpetuate his name, and look forward to a prosperous old age." We may mark this phase of aboriginal life in the light of the following Gond folk-song : How young I was When I planted the mango And still the leaves are full of life But there is none in my old body. Verrier Elwin rightly says that "The old man who planted mango and tamarind trees in his youth finds himself jealous of the vigour of their fresh green leaves and contrasts it with the lack of strength in his own limbs." Here is a Bhil song translated hyjn P KhanapnrVar it seems to bring out the pipal tree as a symbol of grace and character in view of the names of the chiefs of the Dangi Bhils which are mentioned in the song : Oh, King Somansing, Your throne is of gold Oh, it is of gold Your speech is silvery Oh, it is silvery Oh, pipal tree, Your leaves appear golden. Oh, King Ghandarsing, Your throne is of gold Oh, it is of gold Your speech is silvery Oh, it is silvery, Oh, pipal tree, Your leaves appear golden. Oh, King Sahebu, Your throne is golden Oh, it is golden [Your speech is silvery >h, it is silvery >h, pipal tree, our leaves appear golden. 44 TREES IN INDIAN FOLK-SONGS Oh, King Anandrao, . Your throne is of gold Oh, it is of gold Your speech is silvery Oh, it is silvery Oh, pipal, your leaves are golden. The image of the elc ,er brother's wife persists in many hill songs, as also in another Garhwali song that centres round the willow (majnu) tree : Who you are, O man, sitting in the shade of the tree ? Besides water stands majnu tree. Sitting in the shade, do not break its branches. Who you are, O man, sitting in the shade of the tree ? Besides water stands majnu tree, My uncle built its stone enclosure, My aunt brought stones and clay. Who you are, O man, sitting in the shade of the tree ? Besides water stands majnu tree. My brother got it fenced, Steadily did my sister-in-law nurture it. Who you are, O man, sitting in the shade of the tree ? Besides water stands majnu tree. It stands erect, full of pride, And reminds me of my dear ones. Who you are, O man, sitting in the shade of the tree ? Besides water stands majnu tree. Sitting in the shade, do not break its branches. It grieves my heart To see it assailed. Who you are, O man, sitting in the shade of the tree ? Most hill songs are built round trees and are sung at village rituals. The following songs from Himachal Pradesh are good examples of this type : The cones are growing on the pine trees, The deodar trees have borne koka cones; O I saw men, many men, But your glances are unique. 45 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA 11 O green koomshi plant of the valley, you are green, ever green I'll win the man of my heart, else I shall die. The young man left me stealthily, Kindling the fire of love in me a branch of a tree. The following love song from the Khondhs of Orissa projects the image of the jam tree, along with a mahua and a mango : On the hill-top stands a jane tree Flowers blossom on the jaru tree; One flower for you, darling, One flower for me. On the hill-top stands a mango tree, The pollen appears on the mango tree; One blossom for you, my boy, One blossom for me. On the hill-top stands the mahua tree, Flowers blossom on the mahua tree; One flower for you, darling, One flower for me. Here are the opening lines of a beautiful Malyalam folk-song : Says the landlord, "Trees are green but you are withered." 1 say, "I will die to be born a tree on earth !" Blow, blow, O sea breeze, tell your tale, The landlord never hears our wail, O Earth, O Sun, I see no justice. The tree motif, either forming the background or the theme itself, is also seen in the following South Indian folk-songs, translated from Kannada : . i It is cool under the nim in summer, The Beemrati river, too, is cool, mother, You are cool at my birthplace. 11 The bird of the sandal forest flies swiftly, He must be knowing the secrets of the trees, mother, He loves the fragrant breeze. 46 TREES IN INDIAN FOLK-SONGS 111 The fig tree stands at the door of the barren woman, Parrots sit on every branch and say : C O barren woman, your life is for others.' iv Better be mud than a barren woman, For on the mud will grow a tree Giving shelter from the sun to the sons of man. v The road to the weekly market is lined with trees, At the weekly market I left my boy, The trees kept away their flowers with grief. vi Safe are the sandal trees; we are planted by the gods; We love the land where the peacocks dance, And the sandal trees are our companions. Some Punjabi songs mention the sandal tree as in the Song of Lachhi. Aha, where Lachhi washes her face, There a sandal grows where Lachhi washes her face. Another Punjabi song brings in the shisham and mulberry trees : Where shall I plant the shisham trees All full of leaves ? O my youth with a slim body, Where shall I plant the mulberries ? Oh, the old fool would not follow me. In the garden shall I plant the shisham trees All full of leaves. O my youth with a slim body, At the door of the house shall I plant the mulberries. Oh, the old fool would not follow me. Full one span have grown shisham trees All full of leaves, O my youth with a slim body, Full one span have grown the mulberries. Oh, the old fool would not follow me. 47 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA The old fool is the husband who would not help the young bride in planting the tree, and it seems, at every step she is thinking of leaving him for good. In its earliest forms, the Indian folk-song was inseparable from the tree motif, as the community lived close to the forests and was never cut off from the real roots of inspiration. Man has always taken pride in his relationship with trees. Since the early dawn of culture, he has learnt to call every tree by name. An urge to discover something new in the image of the tree may be seen in the poetry of every tribe. "There is a dumb bird that sits on a beautiful sal tree. Shake the tree, and the bird awakes and sings." This is a Gond riddle. The answer is "the anklets on the feet of a girl who goes to the dance." Like folk-songs, even riddles and proverbs of the people in India have been enriched by frequent reference to the tree motif. And even folk-tales have celebrated the importance and beauty of trees in India. Trees have provided inspiration to humanity for thousands of years. While human beings enjoy youth which is only transient, trees remain youthful for many years. Every year they produce new leaves and new flowers which bring joy to us. The annual rejuvenation of trees like kachnar and pink cassia and their magic mantle of mauve and pink flowers gladden the heart of the lover of nature. Planting of beautiful trees, which has lately become increasingly popular in India, will provide richer themes for our folk-songs and will beautify our country. 48 CHAPTER VI WANDERINGS OF PLANTS SINCE the time primitive man began to gather seeds from plants growing wild in the fields and to improve them by slow and crude methods, he has been enriching his diet by adding new varieties of food crops and fruit trees. After he conquered the barriers of land by domesticating the ox and the horse, and of water by inventing the canoe, an extensive exchange of plants has been going on between the continents of Eurasia and Africa. However, the Americas for a long time re- mained isolated from the Old World. If we examine our crops and trees, we will find that a large number of them have been introduced from foreign countries. Potatoes which furnish food to millions came to this country from South America via Europe only in the seventeenth century. Quinine was unknown in the East and cinchona plants were introduced from South America into Java and other Eastern countries not very long ago. Soyabean was introduced from Manchuria into America and Europe and Para Rubber from South America into Java, Malaya and India. The Ijlack mulberry came from Iran. The peanut was introduced by the Portuguese into India and Africa from Peru. Papaya (Carica papaya), whose fruit is a valuable source of papain a digestive enzyme resembling animal pepsin and particularly useful to meat-eaters is a native of Central America and the West Indies. A few high-yielding varieties like Washington, Giant Hawaii, Ceylon Long, Ranchi Mammoth and Calcutta have been selected as suitable for India, and there is no doubt that there are others in their home countries which may repay intro- duction. Who can imagine Kashmir without its chenars, poplars and willows ? Yet these chenars and willows are exotics, introduced by the Moghuls from Central Asia, while the Lombardy poplar is a recent introduction. We may also mention that until recently the strawberry was practically unknown in the plains of Northern India. It was introduced into Kapurthala from France by D. R. Sethi in 1918, and now it is commonly grown in the villages of Jullundur district of the Punjab. Most of our ornamental flowering trees and garden plants have been introduced by garden-loving British travellers, explorers and government officers from foreign countries like South America, Madagascar, Malaya, Java, the West Indies and Burma. Poinciana regia and Colvillea racemosa were brought from Madagascar, Jacaranda mimosaefolia and the ramie tree from Brazil, Brownea ariza and Bauhinia purpurea from the West Indies, Cassia javanica and Peltophorum ferrugineum from Malaya, Spathodea campanulata from Tropical Africa and the double-flowering peach from Japan. The dogwood tree] (Cornus florida) with its beautiful white flowers of the United 53 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA States of America deserves to be introduced into our hilly areas. The pink Bombax (Bombax ellipticum] of Hawaii is another desirable ornamental tree. The seedless Washington Navel orange originated as a bud sport of a Portu- guese variety of orange in Brazil and was introduced into California in 1878. This variety is also a recent introduction into India and is becoming popular. The summer orange Valencia which ripens from February to April, is an introduction from the Azores, a group of Portuguese islands in the Atlantic. One of the recent introductions is the teasel plant (Dipsacus fullonum) by Jai Chand Luthra who got a few seeds of this plant from the Botanical Garden at Duisberg in Germany in 1931, and successfully cultivated it in Kulu and Palampur in Kangra district of the Punjab. The heads of this plant are used for raising floss on the surface of woollen goods, and a few years' cultivation of teasel has made India independent of foreign imports. In the United States of America, the Plant Introduction Service was organized by the State Department of Agriculture as long ago as 1903. David Fairchild, who has done a great service to his country by organizing this Service, also introduced some of our best Indian mangoes into Florida. The United States Plant Exploration and Introduction Service sent capable botanists like Walter T. Swingle and William E. Whitehouse to the unexplored regions of North Africa and Asia, and these explorers have amply served their country by introducing a large number of economic plants. It is perhaps not commonly realized that excepting the persimmon, avocado, grapes, berries and a few plums, America had no important fruit trees, and the only known food plants were maize, potatoes, sweet potatoes and tomatoes. Most of the green vegetables grown in America have been introduced from outside. In the state of South Dakota, Garleton and N. E. Hansen introduced a white- seeded variety of prosoa, a panicled millet from Semipalatinsk in Siberia. It is a catch crop, maturing in 60 days and found suitable for a dry climate with an annual precipitation of eight inches, and may repay introduction into dry areas like those of Rajasthan. Two most valuable introductions into the U.S.A. are the Smyrna fig and the date-palm. Along with the Smyrna fig, Blastophaga, a tiny pollinating wasp which carries pollen from the male tree (the Capri fig) was also introduced. The date- palm produces a more well-mineralized, high-flavoured and healthy human food per acre than any other crop excepting the banana. Swingle introduced into the U.S.A. a number of varieties of date-palms from Morocco, Tripoli, Egypt, Arabia, Iraq, Iran and the southern states of America. He brought the remarkable Medjhool from the Taflilat region of Southern Morocco and Deglet Noor variety from Southern Tunisia. On account of these introductions, more than a 1,000 choice varieties have been tested in the date gardens of Southern 54 WANDERINGS OF PLANTS California and Arizona, and the total annual production of dates in the United States of America exceeds 13,000,000 pounds, which is one-quarter of her total con- sumption. In spite of its marked xerophytic character, the date-palm requires plenty of irrigation. The Arabs rightly say that the date-palm must have its feet in running water and its head in the fires of heaven. These conditions are met with in an ideal state in the canal-irrigated areas of the Punjab and Rajasthan. In spite of such favourable circumstances, we have introduced only a few varieties of the date-palm into India. Choice varieties of dates should be introduced on a large scale into the canal-irrigated areas and grown along the banks of canals and watercourses. The date-palm is a tall tree and does not cast much shade, and as such is not harm- ful to other crops. With the coming of quicker means of transportation, particularly of the steam- ship and the railway, world exchange of plants has been going on at a quicker pace and on a much vaster scale. However, the possibilities of plant introduction, parti- cularly from the point of view of plant breeding, are still far from exhausted. The cassava (Manihot utilissima) has been tried in South India. The starch-palm (Bactris utilis) which is so popular in South America, may prove to be of considerable value in tropical India. The tung-oil tree (Aleurites fordii) is being tried by the Forest Research Institute at Dehra Dun. With the diversity of climate which India possesses, there is no doubt that our stock of economic and ornamental plants can greatly be increased. In India, we are fortunate in having a variety of soils and climates, and plants from all regions of the world from the arctic to the tropics can find a congenial home here. A. C. Joshi has drawn our attention to the vast potentialities of our country from the point of view of plant introduction on account of its favourable geographical situation. Of the six "primary centres" of origin of cultivated plants recognized by Vavilov and other Soviet scientists, three, viz., Central Asia, the mountains of Eastern China and the Indo-Malayan region, border on India. These are the homes of most Old World fruit trees. B. P. Pal summarizes the informa- tion about the various centres of origin of cultivated plants and possible causes of production of new varieties thus : "In their respective centres of origin, cultivated plants display a wealth of varietal diversity which is not to be found elsewhere. A characteristic feature is that these primary centres frequently include a large number of genetically dominant characters. "The researches of Vavilov and his co-workers have shown that the region of north-western India and south-eastern Afghanistan is the place of origin of the soft and club wheats and also of many other field and garden crops such as rye, pea, lentil, beans, flax and carrot. The 28-chromosome group 55 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA of wheats has had an entirely separate centre of origin in Abyssinia. The Eastern Asiatic region has probably seen the origin of rice, soyabean, and some of the millets. In the New World, the rather restricted territory of Central America (including Southern Mexico) is the home of such plants as maize, teosinte, the common bean, annual pepper, agave, anona, sapota and papaya. Tobacco probably originated in South America. It is also probable that the potato plant had more than one centre of origin. While the island of Chiloe and the neighbouring islands of the coast of Chile are probably the centre in which the common cultivated potato originated, many cultivated and wild species have originated in the Peru-Bolivian tableland." It will be apparent that many of the important centres of origin are associated with the tropics or subtropics and the presence of mountains. This may, perhaps, be connected with the fact that in such regions an optimum of moisture, heat, light and substratum have afforded favourable conditions for the origin and accumulation of varietal diversity. Mountainous areas tend to act as isolators and thus may have played a part in the differentiation and divergence of species and varieties. An interesting speculation that cosmic rays might be responsible for the greater diversity and density of species near the mountain tops has been advanced by Dixon, Hurst and more recently, by Hamshaw Thomas. The cosmic rays are particles of very great energy which are constantly reaching the earth in very great numbers and closely resemble the X-rays in their properties and effects. As X-rays are used for the artificial production of mutations, it appears possible that cosmic radiations may have been a factor in the production of varieties by direct action on the germ plasm. It is interesting to note that the centres of origin of cultivated plants are often near the centres of ancient civilization. We can hope to achieve considerable improvement of our fruit trees if we explore these regions systematically. Apart from exploring the Himalayas and the mountainous regions of South India, we should send expeditions to China, Java, Malaya, Australia, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Africa and Central and South Americas to search and bring new fruit and ornamental trees and shrubs as well as the wild ancestors of crop plants. For orchard fruit and nut trees like apricots, peaches, plums, almonds, pistachio and walnut, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq and Western Turkey should be explored. The Hindukush is regarded as the home of a number of important cultivated crops, and will repay exploration from the point of view of disease and frost-resistance in crops. China can also furnish us with a great variety of vegetables such as radish and beans. B. P. Pal brought seeds of a number of Chinese vegetables to India. On account of the periodical ravages of floods and famines, the Chinese have 56 WANDERINGS OF PLANTS investigated the food value of a number of edible weeds. Momordica grosvenori Swingle, the rare seasoning weed lohan kuo, is grown in the mountains of Kwangsi Province and is prized as a condiment as well as a remedy for throat and intestinal disturbances. Rhubarb is also of Chinese origin. Ephedra sinica, a valuable source of ephedrin and a well-known alkaloid used for throat and nose troubles, was introduced into California from China by Swingle in 1926. He spent a number of years in China exploring the interior of the country, and reported that there were a 1,000 distinct varieties of citrus cultivated in the provinces south of the Yangtze river. Some of these are hardy and disease-resistant and some are valued for their flavour. Some varieties grown in California have their home in China. However, it may be mentioned that even with their efficient Plant Explora- tion and Introduction Service, the Americans have not tested more than 10 per cent of the Chinese varieties. South China, the home of the orange, deserves close explo- ration, and it is necessary that we too should introduce some of the best Chinese varieties into India. In most countries excepting the U.S.A. and the Soviet Union, the work of introduction of new plant material and its use in hybridization with local varieties has been carried out on a limited scale. In the Soviet Union, Vavilov and his co- workers have collected plant-breeding material from many countries. Numerous wild species of wheat and barley have been collected from Abyssinia, Turkey and Afghanistan and many species of peas, beans, tomatoes, onions, melons, pears, peaches, apples and grapes from countries the world over. As a result, cold-resisting and early-maturing varieties of wheat have been propagated in Siberia which served as the Soviet bread-basket when Ukraine was occupied by the Nazi armies in the Second World War. Considering the variety of plant material at the disposal of the Soviet plant- breeders, endless possibilities of origin of new plants arise. How this has affected the outlook regarding the future plant-breeding work can be well judged from the following remarks of Vavilov himself: "Our ideas about such plants as the potato have been entirely revised. The whole work of breeding and genetics had been formerly based on one Linnean species, Solanum tuberosum, whereas the expedition to South America has disclosed the existence amongst the cultivated potatoes at its original home of no less than thirteen well-defined Linnean species, many of which are of great practical interest. These species differ from one another in the chromo- some number, morphological and physiological characters and area of distribution. They contain species and forms which are extremely resistant to disease and frost. The potatoes formerly known to geneticists and breeders were only fragments of one species, collected at random by the first travellers, and on these the whole of the breeding and genetic work of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century has been based." 57 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA Besides the cultivated plants, we must also take into account the wild plants. There was a time when wild plants were considered to be of interest to the taxonomist only. It is now admitted that greater possibilities in breeding can be realized by making use of the wild relatives of our cultivated plants. By virtue of their persis- tence and habitat under arduous conditions of climate and soil, the wild- plants possess some useful economic characters such as resistance to cold, drought and disease. Many instances may be quoted of the successful utilization of wild forms in the solution of economic problems in plant breeding. The Java sugar industry, which was at one time threatened with collapse on account of serious losses caused by the sereh disease, was saved by the timely introduction by Kobus of a wild variety of cane from India known as Chunnee. The famous series of canes developed at Coimbatore has been the result of crossing with the wild species Saccharum sponta- neum. The production of perennial hardy varieties of wheat by Tzitzin in Russia by making use of the wild grass Agropyron is another outstanding example. These wheats are considered very promising for new tracts with highly unfavourable weather conditions. Harland has reported interesting results in cotton. The hybrid of the wild Hawaiian species Gossypium tomentosum with Sea Island has produced a beauti- ful khaki lint of Egyptian quality, and is completely immune to attacks of leaf- sucking insects. Potato-breeding work has been revolutionized by the discovery of wild tuber-bearing species Solanum demissum, S. acaule, S. commersonii, etc., some of which are resistant to frost and others to late blight caused by Phytophthora infestans. Though the contribution made by explorers and travellers of the nineteenth century is very valuable, the time has come when we must recognize that a work of such importance cannot be left to the whims and fancies and the comparatively poor resources of private individuals. A systematic, organized and planned effort is needed to place the plant exploration and introduction work on a sound national footing. 58 CHAPTER VII A BIOAESTHETIG PLAN WE are indebted to Professor Lancelot Hogben for the term "bioaesthetic planning" which may be defined as conscious planning of the flora and fauna with the object of beautifying the country. For a healthy and balanced development of a nation, wealth in the form of material goods is, no doubt, necessary, but a beautiful environment is just as essen- tial. Colourful trees and flowers play a great part in making the environment beautiful and refining the minds of the inhabitants. Here is a plan for planting flowering trees on a mass scale in the inhabited areas of this country. Bioaesthetic planning embraces both the animal and plant sciences, Botany and Zoology, and may be further defined as planned ecology of living beings from the artistic and aesthetic points of view. It includes the plantation of ornamental flowering trees along city roads, in parks, public places and compounds of houses both in towns and villages, and development of national parks for the preservation of beautiful, non-carnivorous animals, and the creation of bird sanctuaries. The object of a bioaesthetic plan for India is the encouragement of the planting of selected ornamental flowering trees in our towns and villages, protection of beautiful, harm- less birds like wild ducks, egrets, geese and sarus cranes by legal declaration of our bigjhils as bird sanctuaries, and preservation of graceful animals such as black bucks, blue bulls, sambhars and spotted deer, which are being ruthlessly exterminated in national parks and zoological gardens in the vicinity of our big towns. Bioaesthetic planning, of course, embraces landscape gardening as well, but it is a much wider term. The whole country is susceptible of bioaesthetic planning, provided a consistent policy is followed and a persistent effort made over a long period. The bioaesthetic planner is a master artist whose canvas is the entire country and whose pigments are the beautiful flowering trees. He paints the canvas of the countryside in rich colours blue, yellow, orange, scarlet, red and pink. The blue jacarandas, yellow amaltas, orange-scarlet gul mohurs, scarlet colvilleas, red erythrinas and pink lagerstroemias are with what he paints the side-walks of roads, the platforms of railway stations, the canal banks and the compounds of houses and public buildings. His objective is to lay them out in a pleasing pattern so that an attractive picture results. With the success of our First Five Year Plan, people in India have become plan-conscious, and, in fact, planning has become the rage of our epoch. All thinking people realize the danger and wastefulness of "go-as-you-please and devil-take- the-hindmost' competitive unplanned economy which we have inherited. The 59 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA world over, people have begun thinking of the future needs of the community and have realized the value of planning. The idea of planning appeals to the imagination of people who appreciate clear thinking, for it is scientific. It is also the quickest method of developing the resources of a backward country, and hence its appeal to the people of China and India. The idea of planning is not novel to the biologist who deals with the classification of plants and animals and their orderly arrange- ment in phyla, classes, families, genera and species, thus creating order out of chaos. In fact, Carl Linnaeus was a very great planner indeed, for he cleared so much confusion and created an orderly Biology. Bioaesthetic planning is the projection of the systematizing and planning mentality of the biologist into the field of everyday life. The planning of our cultural and aesthetic life is a necessary concomitant of the planning of our social and econo- mic life. While we are planning our industries and agriculture we can hardly ignore the environment of the human beings. Though a beautiful pattern may result by chance out of haphazard efforts of individuals, it cannot be called planning for beauty. Planning has been described by Professor Abercrombie as "a conscious exercise of the powers of combination and design, and not a question of unconcerned growth, even though the latter may produce fortuitously happy results/' About 150 years ago in Europe and about 50 years ago in this country, the common man was afraid of the wild country, mountains, lakes and forests, and re- garded mountains and forests with a feeling of horror. It is only in the nineteenth century that educated people began to admire the beauty of the mountains and forests. In India, the educated classes are under a heavy debt to Wordsworth for inculcating in them the love of nature. Since then the pendulum has swung to the other extreme. There is in some of us an undiscriminating and irrational adoration of nature. People who have never grown a herbaceous border of annual flowers in their own house, burst out in panegyrics on seeing a clump of anemones or poten- tillas in the hills. It is far from my intention to decry the beauty of alpine flowers in the Himalayan meadows as compared with the annual flowering plants in our gardens in the plains. On the other hand, I hold that in the magnificent setting of the Himalayan snows a planned alpine garden will look much better than anything nature has ever produced. Untamed nature is disorderly, chaotic and wayward. Man has been constantly fighting his environment. He battles with nature to produce a semblance of order. He clears the jungles, breaks virgin soil for cultivation, diverts the courses of rivers, makes canals and embankments for irrigation and converts waste land into parks and gardens. While in some cases he has produced ugliness by his haphazard/uncontrolled and misdirected actions, in other cases he has been able to improve upon nature. Who can deny the beauty of the poplar-lined roads of France, the vineyards of the Rhine, the tulip fields of Holland, the saffron 60 A BIOAESTHETIC PLAN terraces of Kashmir and the hedge rows of the English countryside ? Those who admire the beauty of the English countryside forget that it is the result of hard work of many generations. Describing the evolution of the English countryside, Lancelot Hogben writes, "What generally gains admiration for the beauties of the English countryside is not nature as such. Untouched nature is generally monoto- nous. English park lands and hedge rows, and many of our woodlands are the result of human interference, sometimes by the deliberate "action of enthusiastic pioneers of bioaesthetic planning like John Evelyn, and sometimes as relics of past cultivation." Similarly, the wonderful landscape gardens of Japan are the result of a toil of generations. However, broadly speaking, man's battle with nature and environment has been haphazard and there has been no conscious planning and direction of his efforts. The explanation is simple. Individuals who set about consciously changing and planning their environment are rare. On the other hand, the large majority of people are content with their mode of living and their everyday environment. Moreover, it is by a rare chance that the odd individuals who change things are in a position of power where they can execute their plans. This is more true of India than of any other country in the world. Excepting the Moghuls who came from the arid region of Central Asia and were more garden-conscious than Indians and left behind wonderful terraced gardens and planted grand avenues of chenar (Platanus orientalis) along the banks of the Jhelum in Kashmir, our country has been practically untouched, so far as bioaesthetic planning is concerned. Maybe, our comparative neglect of gardening is due to the luxuriant jungle vegetation which surrounds our villages. But, now, this should be a help rather than a hindrance in the planned planting of flowering trees. Town planning and bioaesthetic planning should go hand in hand. Orderly and planned planting of ornamental trees can be seen to its best effect in new towns with wide roads, flanked by shady foot-paths, well laid-out public parks and squares, rather than in congested old towns with narrow, crooked streets. Our old towns offer little scope for bioaesthetic planting. Firstly, they contain no open places suitable for plantation, and secondly, their streets and roads are too narrow. Planting of flowering trees in an old town appears like draping an old, haggard and ugly woman in a brilliantly coloured new sari, which merely throws her ugliness into greater contrast. Beautiful new clothes are displayed to their best advantage on a good-looking young woman, and bioaesthetic planting too can be seen at its best in new residential quarters which are growing up on the outskirts of old towns. Town planning is a precondition for bioaesthetic planting. We have allowed our towns to develop like mushrooms on a dung heap without any plan or order. In our country, laissez faire has really run amuck and the results have been most unfortunate. Ugly, ill-ventilated houses joined together in monstrous piles along 61 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA narrow, crooked lanes that is how our ancient towns like Amritsar, Lucknow and Banaras appear to an outsider whose eyes are accustomed to western orderliness. An aerial view reveals them as pieces of a jigsaw puzzle, mixed up in a crazy pile ; and not a patch of green in these prison-like piles of masonry ! These houses may have been suitable in insecure times of the middle ages when security rather than ventilation was the guiding principle in our domestic architecture, but in the present social context they appear anachronisms and fossils of a social and economic order which disappeared long ago. In these old towns, we see a reflection of our disorderly and indisciplined social and economic life. They may appear romantic to foreigners who come to our country in search of oriental mysticism and magic, but are certainly unfit for the healthy growth of a nation. It is time we realized that we have had enough of these stinking streets. The younger generation must be educated in a new mode of living. We must improve the environment in our towns. A very pertinent question arises about the future of these old towns. What should be done with these ancient insanitary slums ? Some would recommend wholesale demolition. But that is an extreme view, idealistic rather than practical. We should try to improve them as far as practicable. These old towns are in need of drastic surgery. We must decongest old residential areas by compulsory acquisition of suitable central housing areas, and after demolishing the ugly houses thus acquired, we should develop parks and open spaces in the sites thus vacated. Improvement Trusts have done useful work in Kanpur, Lucknow and Delhi, but the pace of progress is snail-like and painfully slow, considering the rapid urbani- zation and an alarming increase in the population of our cities. In the parks thus made, swimming pools should be constructed for the recreation of citizens in hot weather, and incidentally, for irrigating the trees and lawns. The garden suburb should be our ideal in this warm country, for vertical development is unsuitable, considering the summer heat; and flats are positively uncomfortable in summer. Moreover, the development of motor transport has greatly facilitated horizontal and peripheral development of towns. As far as possible, the growth of these garden suburbia should be planned in a concentric manner, as this will mean economy in fuel consumption for motor vehicles. With the evisceration of slummy quarters, development of parks and tanks in the decongested areas and controlled development in the suburban areas, we can make our old towns also fairly attractive. Towns developing along the lines of communications serve as production or distribution centres. Our old towns developed along the banks of rivers which were the main channels of communication in the past and served as distribution centres where the villagers exchanged their agricultural produce with handmade articles manufactured by the artisans of towns. These towns were built around forts in which the kings lived surrounded by their nobles and soldiers. They were surrounded 62 A BIOAESTHETIC PLAN by stone or brick walls for the sake of protection. The ancient walled towns packed with buildings raised without much of planning appeared like disorderly piles. The narrow streets were designed for the needs of pedestrians, pack animals like mules and donkeys, and country bullock-carts, whose speed may be taken as three miles per hour. With the increase in population and changes in the technique of warfare as well as transport, the walled city became an anachronism. The ancient town packed with buildings and people ultimately bursts, and garden suburbia in the shape of so-called civil stations and model towns are created. So the problem arises : what should be our ideal in this new town develop- ment ? The Garden City should be our ideal. The Welwyn Garden City in England and Chandigarh in the Punjab provide examples which may profitably be followed in the development of new population centres. With electrification which will come in the wake of the hydro-electric schemes, trolley-buses will be the most suitable for transporting people to their places of work from their homes in garden suburbs. For our city of the future, the Le Corbusier model with many-storeyed offices and factories linked with the garden suburbs by means of bioaesthetically planted roads will be very suitable. People will work in the production hub of the city during daytime and will disperse again in the garden suburbs in the evening, enjoying life in healthy, quiet, noise-free and dust and smoke-free surroundings. 63 CHAPTER VIII PLACES SUSCEPTIBLE OF BIOAESTHETIC PLANNING T^UBLIC places which belong to the community as a whole rather than individuals JL should have priority in bioaesthetic planning. A larger number of persons, especially those who are unable to afford private gardens of their own, will thus be able to enjoy the sight of beautiful flowers. Public parks and squares, public roads, platforms of railway stations, compounds of hospitals, universities, colleges and schools, ancient historical buildings under the supervision of the Archaeological Department, compounds of courts, office buildings of Municipalities and District Boards and dak bungalows of the Public Works Department, the Canal Department and the District Boards are the places in towns which are susceptible of bioaesthetic planning and should claim preference in our programme of beautifying our towns and cities. Proprietors of hotels and banks and owners of new bungalows should also be encouraged and given all assistance in the planting of ornamental trees. A railway station is the entrance gate of a town. An outsider coming to a town for the first time receives his first impression of the place from the railway station. An unfavourable first impression requires a good deal of correction later on. A traveller on a long journey forms his opinion about a town, which he is too busy to see, from the architecture of the railway station and the appearance of its platforms. He may condemn a town merely because he passed through a ghastly railway station. A railway station with a grim exterior will be unworthy of any beautiful town. Platforms can also be sometimes frightfully drab. Avenues of amaltas, Persian lilac, peltophorum and lagerstroemias will give them a touch of colour, relieving them of their monotony. A platform without trees will add to the discomfiture of passengers who often have to wait for long on it for their trains. Shade is always welcome in summer. The necessity of planting the platforms and approaches of railway stations with beautiful flowering trees is yet to be fully appreciated. We have still to plan the planting of platforms of thousands of railway stations. There is another reason why we should make the platforms of our railway stations gay with flowering trees. Millions of persons daily pass through railway stations in the course of business. Platforms of railway stations are more noticed by the people than any other public place. Only a few go to gardens to acquaint themselves with flowering trees, while they all have to see the platforms and ap- proaches of railway stations. By planting flowering trees on platforms of stations, we will not only be beautifying them, but will also be educating the citizen in bioaes- thetics. The railways will thus be making a genuine contribution to the cultural life of the country. The Indian railways should grow their own nurseries for supply of 64 PLACES SUSCEPTIBLE OF BIOAESTHETIC PLANNING seedlings to station-masters for planting on platforms. It is necessary, however, that the station-masters develop a sense of appreciation for flowers and trees. This they will if they are given lectures on bioaesthetics in the course of their training. We arc living in a shrinking world, which is rapidly becoming one. India is no longer an isolated country and no longer a vast jungle full of snakes, tigers and elephants. The aeroplane has annihilated distance, and the size of the earth has shrunk to a fifteenth of what it was before the Second World War in terms of the time dimension. This will mean greater contacts among the peoples of different countries, and a tremendous increase in tourist traffic in India. So far, we have been having cold-weather tourists only from Europe and America, but in future we will have tourists from all parts of the world in the spring and summer and autumn months too, when the Himalayas are at their best and most of our orna- mental flowering trees are in bloom. Moreover, electric fans, air-conditioned railway trains, motor buses, houses and hotels will reduce the discomfort of living in a hot country to a great extent, and the plains of India will no longer remain unbearably hot and uncomfortable as at present. The Himalayan meadows carpeted with brilliant alpine flowers, the snow-covered peaks of the Himalayas with their pine- scented forests and the brilliantly coloured rocky trans-Himalayas will draw lovers of natural beauty like a magnet from all parts of the world. What will they sec in the plains on their way to the Himalayas ? If we transform the land into a colourful place by planned planting of flowering trees, the visitors will carry back happier impressions. Just as the Japanese invite foreigners when cherries blossom in their country, we can also call them when the bauhineas are covered with a mantle of purple and mauve flowers in the month of March, and when our roads become a blaze of colour with flowers of gul rnohur, amaltas and pcltophorum in the month of May. Gate-keepers who live in neat little houses along the railway lines near the gates at railway and road crossings should also be asked to plant a couple of flowering trees near their houses. How beautiful these places will appear ! Not only railway passengers, but people passing through these places in cars and other conveyances will also be able to feast their eyes on the beauty of the blossoms of the pink cassias, kachnarsy amaltases and lagerstroemias. Those who have to wait at railway crossings when the gates are closed, will have something more beautiful to contemplate than the railway signals and the complaint book. Ancient buildings and ruins under the supervision of the Archaeological Department afford endless opportunities for bioacsthctic planting. Those who are in charge of this Department have already shown imagination and foresight in this type of work. The deer park in Akbar's tomb at Sikandra in Agra district is an instance. However, the planting of flowering trees needs be pushed on further. The bare hills around Fatchpur Sikri should be planted with amaltas, which is highly drought-resistant with the additional advantage of not being eaten 65 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA by goats. Besides amaltas, dhak, erythrina, barna, yellow silk cotton tree and semal may also be planted in pure formations on different hillocks. Hills swathed in yellow, deep yellow, scarlet, and red colours of the flowers of these trees will look fascinating from the Hawa Mahal. The ruins and temples at Sarnath, near Banaras, the Taj Mahal, Itmad-ud-Daulah, Akbar's Tomb at Sikandra, the ancient temples at Bateshwar in Agra district, the Purana Qila, Qutab Minar and Humayun's Tomb at Delhi and the Mandu Fort in Madhya Pradesh all provide scope for planned planting of ornamental flowering trees. Towns which have canals and small rivers are particularly suited to bioaesthctic planting. The banks of the canal at Kanpur and the banks of the Gomti river at Lucknow should be planted with Lagerstroemia Jlos-reginae, L. thorelli and other moisture-loving trees. It would be desirable to encourage canal irrigation in the other towns as well, for it will provide an incentive for the growing of gardens and also for planned planting of ornamental trees. Headworks of canals can also be developed into pleasure resorts with a little effort. In India, rivers like the Ganges and the Jumna arc regarded as particularly sacred, and along their banks we see scores of temples and ghats. Such temples and ghats may be planted with kadam and asoka, the sacred trees of Krishna and Sita. Avenues of asoka and kadam at Hardwar and Banaras will not only enhance the sanctity of the ghats but will also add colour and charm to these places. Hotels and dak bungalows which are usually fenced and have well-protected compounds, and some of which have irrigation facilities as well, come within the scope of the tree-planting programme. The boulevards of coastal towns like Bombay and Madras can be made into a symphony of colour by planned planting of suitable flowering trees. We also should not neglect the villages, where village schools, panchayatghars and temples can be planted with ornamental trees. In the Punjab, the villagers plant bakain (Persian lilac) around the bullock-runs of wells fitted with Persian wheels. These clumps not only provide shade for bullocks and men, but also appear very beautiful in March when they are covered with sweet-scented, lilac-coloured flowers. Village community houses (panchayatghars) which are jointly owned by the village and arc usually under the supervision of rural development organizers and panches (the elected representatives of the village), provide ample scope for planting of ornamental trees. Small nurseries of flowering trees can be raised in the compounds of village schools and panchayatghars and can serve as foci of tree-planting activities. 66 PLACES SUSCEPTIBLE OF BIOAESTHETIC PLANNING Places susceptible of bioaesthetic planning Towns and cities Villages Public Private Ghats of Panchayatghars Village schools Temples I compounds of houses rivers Town roads Parks Ghats of rivers and Platforms and Public buildings Boulevards in canals approaches of railway stations coastal towns Ancient historical buildings under Modern the Archaeological Department buildings Hotels Dak bungalows of the Universities Hospitals Courts Hanks Office buildings P.W.D. and Canal and colleges of Municipalities Departments and and District District Boards Boards 67 CHAPTER IX NATURE CONSERVATION AND NATIONAL PARKS EXCESSIVE urbanization created by the nineteenth century industrialism has torn away a large number of persons from the environment of trees and open fields. Thousands of townlings seldom see the morning sun and the starry sky except through a haze of dust and smoke. In sprawling cities like Calcutta and London, people get conditioned to a mode of life, a life which rolls along tarred roads to the tune of a world of noises. In such surroundings, one feels stifled, and one's soul begins to wither. After a year's stay in London I felt a strong urge for a touch of the soil. When after a long time, I handled clods of earth in Hampstead Heath, I felt revivified. It was my peasant soul craving for contact with mother earth and longing for the solitude which the countryside alone can provide, that was finding satisfaction in an environment which was the nearest approach to a village in London. In England, under the spell of urbanism, they allowed their agriculture to decay, and only lately realization has come to the British people that agriculture is something more than a mere industry. We should guard against the decay of our rural life, and must not lose sight of the fact which has been realized by G. M. Trevelyan that "agriculture is not an industry among many, but is a way of life, unique and irreplaceable in its human and spiritual values." The soul of urbanized man is becoming more and more warped. A large number of men and women in our urban areas live maimed and thwarted lives. Living in an artificial environment they become physically and mentally more and more flabby. As Professor C. E. M. Joad observes, "Nature is the mother of our race; we have evolved as part of a natural j\ process and our ancestors lived for millennia in natural conditions. As a result, there lies deep-seated within us a natural love of country sights and sounds and smell and an instinctive need for occasional moments of quiet alone with nature. The smell of fallen leaves or new-mown hay, the tang of a mountain brook, the feel of lush meadow grass against the face, the texture of the bole of an oak, or the sight of its first young leaves showing yellow-green against the April sky, these things touch in us an ancestral chord that stretches back to our savage, perhaps to our subhuman past." One of the surest remedies for curing the sickness of the soul is reviving contact with nature. While urbanized man tries to satisfy his appetites in a world of eating-houses, movies and radios, he forgets that he has a mind and a soul which, 68 NATURE CONSERVATION AND NATIONAL PARKS cut off from nature, the fount of all life, is slowly withering. The spirit of God manifests itself in the grandeur of the mountains, and their flower-filled valleys, in the needle-like Himalayan firs and deodars pointing their green fingers towards the sky, in the gushing torrents and roaring rivers pounding their way to the plains, in the forests blazing with blossoms of flowering trees, in the great banyan trees with spreading crowns standing and contemplating the spectacle of life, and in skeins of ducks and wild geese flapping their wings ovtrjhils lit up by the rays of the morning sun. Our trees, our mountains and our wild birds make India what she is. So the preservation of our fauna and flora in national parks, nature reserves and sanctuaries is one of the conditions necessary for our development as complete human beings with minds and spirits as well as bodies and appetites. The concept of nature conservation embraces several distinct purposes such as conservation of plant and animal life, the scientific aspect which includes biological research, field research and experiment, the amenity aspect which deals with the aesthetic and recreational side, and the educational aspect. The aesthetic and recreational approach places the main emphasis upon preserving the characteristic beauty of the landscape and upon providing ample access to and facilities for open air recreation and for the enjoyment of beauty in those areas. The major features of the park are made easily accessible by providing roads, tracks and bridges, and living accommodation in the form of hostels, etc. The scientific approach which in no way underestimates aesthetic values, was primarily directed to the advancement of knowledge and its application to human welfare. "The educational aspect", as the Special Committee on Wild Life Conservation in the U.K. observes, "is in many ways complementary to each and all of the others. True appreciation of scenery rests in part upon, and is certainly enhanced by, some understanding of the rocks and the variety of landscape which they induce, the shape of the valleys and summits, the flow of the streams, the cliffs and the dunes and flats of the coast, and all the rich verdure with which they are clothed, arc things which can invigorate and refresh the mind and upon which a deep culture can be based. The more widely this appreciation can be diffused, the sounder will be the mental and physical health of the nation." The types of areas which are in need of conservation can be classified under the following categories : I National Parks and Nature Reserves : National Parks may be defined as exten- sive areas of beautiful and relatively wild country with characteristic landscape beauty, which are also wild life sanctuaries for the preservation of big game, or other mammals and birds, where access and facilities for open air enjoy- ment are also provided, so that the people may be able to observe wild life of all kinds in its natural surroundings at close quarters. There is also a need for 69 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA nature reserves in the national parks which act as breeding reservoirs for shy animals, which it is desired to encourage and which are not accessible to visitors. II Geological Monuments and other areas of outstanding value: These include rocks, exposures or sections which, because of their great geological interest, should be preserved as geological monuments, and which should be given the same protection as archaeological buildings and monuments. These should be protected from mining, excavation, prospecting and drilling or similar operations. II Local Educational Reserves : These include small areas of local country con- taining representative local flora, which are reserved for educational purposes for the benefit of schools and colleges. An uncontrolled destruction of wild life has been going on in many countries of the world, and as a result, natural fauna has dwindled and many species have become extinct. In West Europe and countries like England, the process of death and destruc- tion has reached such limits that the sight of a wild bird or animal is regarded as an event of such importance as to inspire many lovers of nature to write letters for publication in the Times, saying that they heard a cuckoo at such and such a place. With the modern means of rapid transport such as the motor car, jeep and aeroplane, the whole world is becoming so speedily opened up to travellers, tourists and traders, and with the increasing population so much uncultivated land is coming under the settler's plough, that the need for the preservation of fauna in national parks and reserves is being increasingly felt. Credit goes to the United States of America for giving a lead to the world in establishing national parks and reserves. The first great national park, the Yellow- stone in the United States, dates from 1872. In 1916, the National Park Service of America was instituted to look after those areas of scenic beauty set aside by Congress to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and the wild life therein, and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations. These parks are also wild life sanctuaries which provide shelter to animals like the bear, bison, deer, elk, moose, antelope and the mountain sheep. Forests in national parks are preserved for their beauty and scientific value. In the Sequoia National Park in California are groves of the world's oldest and biggest trees, Sequoias, which are 3,000 to 4,000 years old with trunks up to 17 feet in diameter. In the Mt. Mckinley National Park in Alaska, there are extraordinary areas for the study of glacial action. In the Grand Canyon National Park of Arizona can be seen the most interesting examples of water erosion. Here the Colorado River has cut 19 canyons, of which the Grand Canyon is a mile deep, and is flanked by 70 NATURE CONSERVATION AND NATIONAL PARKS intricately carved and most gorgeously coloured rocks. In the Saguaro National Park in Arizona can be seen segments of the oldest desert of the world with desert animal life and a large variety of cacti and other xerophytic plants. In the petrified forest of Arizona are well preserved fossil tree trunks, sometimes five feet in diameter and fifty feet in length. These petrified logs arc so well preserved that even the texture of the wood can be clearly seen. In 1940, the U. S. Bureau of Biological Survey was fused with the U. S. Fish and Wild Life Service, which concentrates mainly on vertebrates including game and fur-bearing animals. The refuges of these animals are of immense size and are habitats artificially controlled or improved to accommodate or attract particular birds and mammals. The lead given by the U. S. A. has been followed by other countries such as Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the Union of South Africa. In Canada, the first national park was established in 1885. South Africa has several long-standing national parks. Her Sabi Game Reserve was founded in 1898 and renamed as Kruger National Park in 1926. The Albert National Park in Belgian Congo was created mainly due to the efforts of the American naturalist Carl Akeley. Due to the creation of this sanctuary for wild animals, the gorilla has been saved from extinc- tion. New Zealand has one huge park, "Fjordland", 3,500 square miles in area. Europe, Sweden, Poland, Holland, Italy and Switzerland have established national parks and reserves. In India, the necessity of creating national parks has met with tardy recogni- tion. Baini Prasad has thus summarized information about national parks in India : "In 1934, a very great advance was made in Uttar Pradesh through the great personal interest taken by the enlightened Governor of the State, Sir Malcolm Hailey, as a result of which the National Parks Act of 1934 was passed. This Act provided for the establishment of national parks and for the preservation of wild animal life or other objects of scientific interest and for incidental matters provided therein. As a result, the Hailey Park was demarcated as a national park in the famous Path Doon and the hill forests to the south of it, consisting roughly of an area of 99.97 square miles. Under the Act, the word 'animal' was defined as 'mammal, reptile, or bird', and it was an offence to kill, injure or disturb any animal or to take or destroy any eggs or nests of any bird from the park. The conditions under which the people were allowed to enter or reside in the park were laid down in the Act and to be enforced by the forest department. In Assam, certain areas had already been demarcated as game sanctuaries and more stringent action was being taken to preserve the wild life, which according to some reports had been reduced by almost 75 per cent within recent years. Reference may also 71 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA be made here to the Chamrajanagar Sanctuary of the Mysore State Forests which had been established with a view to offering complete immunity to animals, particularly wild elephants, thereby making it possible for them to thrive without interference. Introduction of other animals not found in the area was to be attempted, and the Sanctuary was to provide facili- ties for the scientific study of the life-histories of different indigenous species of game'*. Since then, other states have also fallen in line and have enacted legislation for the preservation of wild life by declaring certain areas with well-defined bounda- ries as national parks or game sanctuaries or reserves. Some of them, as in Mysore and Kerala are well stocked with natural fauna in an undisturbed forest. One of the most beautiful wild life sanctuaries in India, the Periyar Wild Life Sanctuary, is in Kerala State. Covering about 300 square miles, the Sanc- tuary is situated at an average elevation of 3,000 feet. Inside it is the famed Periyar Lake covering an area of 10 square miles and surrounded by grassy hills and valleys with forest groves along its borders. It is well stocked with elephants, bisons, samburs, wild bears, jungle sheep, tigers, and panthers. In summer, when the springs in the hills dry up, the wild animals are attracted to the Lake, and romp about on its long stretches of green grass, or rest in the welcome shade of the forest trees. Tourists boating on the Lake get a close view of the animals resting in the open. The long range of hills and valleys covered with colourful flowering trees presents an enchant- ing sight to the spectator. An additional attraction is the ancient Sabarimala Temple situated within the Sanctuary which draws thousands of pilgrims every year. The Sanctuary area is permanently closed to all shooting, hunting, cutting down of timber, grazing of cattle and collection of minor forest produce. Another sanctuary that deserves mention is the Mudumalai Wild Life Sanctuary situated in the Nilgiris in Madras State. Covering an area of 120 square miles, it is 42 miles from Ootacamund along the Ooty- Mysore Road which commands magni- ficent views of hills and valleys. Hunting, shooting or snaring of animals is not permit- ted within the Sanctuary, which has a large population of elephants, bisons, spotted deer, tigers, panthers, bears, wild pigs, barking deer, hyaenas, four-horned antelopes, samburs, Nilgiri tahrs, Grey langurs, the Nilgiri langurs, Malabar squirrels, rrfouse deer, civet cats, red mongoose, flying squirrels, wild dogs, grey jungle fowls, spur fowls, quails, partridges, green pigeons,Malabar trogons, black-headed orioles and wood pigeons. A few trained elephants are maintained for taking the visitors round. The Kanha National Park and Game Reserve, 34 miles south-west of Mandla in Madhya Pradesh, is one of those rare spots where undisturbed nature can be seen in her glorious splendour. The Reserve occupies an area of about 97 square miles and has such animals as the tiger, panther, cheetal, sambur, barasingha, 72 NATURE CONSERVATION AND NATIONAL PARKS black buck and barking deer. The main part of the Game Reserve is a plateau nearly 3,000 feet above the sea level, and includes the catchment area of the Banjar River. It has green grass even during the months of May and June when elsewhere pastures dry up. The Park area has been famous for its fauna and flora and was, till recently, an excellent shikar haunt for big and small game. It attracted many sportsmen even from far off countries, who were enchanted by the beautiful sal forests of the Kanha Valley. Captain Forsyth in his "High land of Central India" describes these forests as follows : "The valleys themselves are generally open and free from all underwood, dotted here and there by belts and islands of the noble sal trees, and altogether possessing much of the character ascribed to the American Prairies. And in many places springs of clear, cold water bubble up, clothing the country with belts of perpetual verdure, and conferring on it an aspect of freshness very remarkable in a country of such comparative small elevation in the centre of India. Everything combines to deprive this region of the sterile and inhospitable appearance worn by even most upland tracts during the hot season. Throughout the summer, the glossy dark-green foliage of sal reflects the light in a thousand tints, and first when all other vegetation is at its worst, a few weeks before the gates of heaven are opened in the annual monsoon, the sal selects its opportunity of bursting into afresh garment of the brightest and softest green. But for the bamboo thickets on the higher hills whose light feathery foliage beautifully supplements the heavier masses of the sal that clings to their skirts, the scene would present nothing peculiar to the landscape of a tropical country." The evergreen sal and the year-round fresh pasture in this Reserve arc res- ponsible for the abundance and variety of game. The cool summers invite swarms of birds to nest in the forest, and the Reserve has been the famous haunt of many species of birds such as the pea-fowl, jungle fowl, sand grouse, quail, green pigeon, blue rock pigeon, snipe duck, common teal and the brahmi duck. A winding network of roads touches all the salient points in the Park. Facilities have been provided for observing wild animals such as tigers, panthers, bears, samburs, spotted deer, four- horned antelopes and a variety of birds, in their natural habitat. A well-equipped booth with electric installations has been set up for studying the habits of tigers, and for photography. Three beautiful lakes provide an added attraction. There is a clear need for establishing nature reserves within national parks. The principal purposes of such nature reserves, as given by the Wild Life Conserva- tion Special Committee of England and Wales and which arc applicable to India as well, are as follows : 73 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA "To conserve and manage, for the enjoyment and interest of visitors, and for the use of naturalists, students and teachers, sites of biological, physiogra- phical and geological importance and characteristic stretches of the natural vegetation. Similar considerations would apply in a less degree to other areas which, though not so valuable on strictly scientific grounds, have just as much importance because of their general charm or because they contain objects of marked beauty whether rocks, trees, or flowering plants. "To establish breeding reserves for scientifically encouraging particular species or communities of species the preservation or wider spread of which within the park it is desired to promote. In such reserves public access would have to be more or less restricted. "To set aside areas so managed as to attract rare, interesting and beautiful species not at present living in the park or its surroundings." The authorities responsible for the management of the reserves should keep in close touch with the university and educational centres, as well as local natural societies. A need would also arise for providing small handbooks on nature reserves, explaining with the aid of maps, photographs and sketches the scientific significance of the reserve. Lack of field training for teachers as well as students is one of the most serious defi- ciencies in the current biological education in India. Without field training or facilities for nature study, the teaching of Botany or Zoology tends to become lifeless and warped. Thus, there is need for local educational reserves for all colleges where biological sciences are taught. The local educational reserve is the counterpart of the college museum and the laboratory. These reserves would open a vast and stimulating field of knowledge in a discipline which trains such mental attributes as acute power of observation, patience, concentration, detailed ordering of thought, and the appre- ciation of form and colour. Visits to these reserves under proper guidance would provide a liberal education to the students in one of the most stimulating and for- mative fields of thought. These are gains which cannot be quantified in terms of money. A beginning in this direction has been made in Delhi State, where the local government has placed an area of 20 acres on the 'Ridge' at the disposal of the Department of Botany, University of Delhi. This piece of land will be enclosed with barbed wire, representative trees and shrubs will be labelled and efforts made to introduce other local plants also which can grow under these conditions. With the liquidation of the feudal order and the merger of states into unions, the problem of wild life preservation has acquired a new significance. It must be said to the credit of the princes and rajahs that they preserved the wild animals and forests of their states rather well. With the demand of cultivators that their crops be saved from wild animals, there is need for the formulation of a clear policy on 74 NATURE CONSERVATION AND NATIONAL PARKS wild life preservation. There is immediate need for an initial survey of all proposed national park areas. While there is a necessity of maintaining a good vegctational balance and preserving the rich flora and fauna in national park areas, the general wild life policy must be such as will not prejudice the use of developed agricultural land. The interests of the cultivator and the lover of nature must be harmonized. The apprehensions of farmers that national parks and nature reserves will develop into uncontrolled sanctuaries where pests and weeds will be allowed to flourish and which will spread into surrounding agricultural lands must be allayed. Biologists must give lists of harmful and useful birds and animals. While such of them as are friends of the cultivator are encouraged in the national parks, the enemies must be exterminated. The Biologists should also give advice on whether campaigns should be started for the destruction of wild boars, porcupines, monkeys, bats and parrots which cause enormous damage to crops and gardens. Before any such campaign is started, it should be ascertained whether wholesale destruction of certain birds or animals will have harmful repercussions elsewhere by upsetting the balance of power between the various organisms. An action which prima facie may appear sensible and desirable may have far-reaching and most unpleasant and unforeseen consquences fifty years hence. As the authors of the report on "The Wild Life Conservation" observe, "A conservation policy directed to main- taining any particular biological equilibrium entails constant vigilance and a fine- scale 'management' of a kind comparable to the most highly developed farming." The Special Committee further recommends the establishment of a National Biological Service, which should include not only systematists but also others. As the Committee further observes, "Though the ability to recognize and name an organism is the first essential stage, it is by no means the last. The ecologist, the plant or animal physiologist, the geneticist, the student of behaviour, the soil scientist, the climatologist and the statistician, each has his prominent place in the picture. But standing level with the biological sciences, though too often neglected in the context of nature preservation, are the geological and physiographical sciences ; for it is from the nature and distribution of the rocks and from the configuration of the earth's crust that the natural beauty of scenery and its living carpet are derived." In January 1935, the Government of India convened at Delhi an All-India Conference for the preservation of wild life with a view to reviewing the position of the fauna and flora as it existed at the time and considering generally the problem of protection of animals peculiar to India. The Conference prepared two lists of species : first, of animals that were to be protected as completely as possible, and second, of those which could only be hunted, killed or captured under a licence, in some cases subject to a bag limit. The Conference further laid stress on the establish- ment of wild life sanctuaries. It was also recommended that the duty of preserving the 75 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA fauna should be assigned to the forest departments in the areas under their charge, and the necessity of co-operation of the police and magistracy was also urged. A comprehensive protective legislation was enacted in 1933 in the Punjab Wild Birds and Wild Animals Protection Act. Wild birds and animals were classified into three categories : (1) Wild birds and animals which are excluded from protection, (2) wild birds and animals which may be killed and captured without a licence during a specified period, and (3) wild birds and animals which may be killed or captured under a licence, subject to a bag limit in some cases, during certain seasons. Shooting of these is prohibited during the breeding season, which is the close season. To administer the Act, a Game Warden was appointed for the states of the Punjab and Delhi. A Game Inspector was appointed in each district with a number of Game Watchers. In addition, District Fauna Committees with the Deputy Commissioner as chairman were established in each district for advising generally about the protection of fauna in their respective districts, and for educating the public mind on the necessity of preserving wild life. The District Fauna Committee of Delhi has done exceedingly useful work. Pictorial charts showing the close season and the bird arid animal friends and foes of the cultivator were published for wide circulation in schools, panchayatghars and police stations. The Wild Life Preservation Act at present in force in many of our states should be made more comprehensive, and cognizance should be taken of the plant world, too. Plants which are rare or striking, beautiful or odd should be scheduled for pro- tection in areas where this is necessary. Rare plants like species of Lycopodium, Ophio- glossum and Osmunda, and beautiful plants like orchids, Rhododendrons and Meconopsis, which are liable to excessive collection by botanists, and which are widely plundered and uprooted by 'pleasurc'-pickers should also be given protection, and their collection should be permitted only under proper control. There are a number of giant trees scattered all over the country, which are known only locally, barring a few like the well known banyan tree of Sibpore Botanical Gardens which covers acres of land. In almost every district, there is a tree of mythical age, which attracts the curiosity of people, and is often worshipped. Where religion has sanctified them, or superstition has invested them with magical powers, these trees are protected by the people. The pipal(Ficusreligiosa) and banyan (Ficusbengalensis) are regarded as sacred, and only in the direst extremities of a famine will their leaves be cut for cattle. The jand (Prosopis spicigera) is reverenced in the arid districts of the Punjab and is commonly selected to mark the abode of a saint or a deity, and 76 NATURE CONSERVATION AND NATIONAL PARKS rags are tied to its branches as offerings. There was a general sentiment against cutt- ing of trees among Hindus, which has given them effective protection so far. In most villages, sacred groves are found from which no one may cut wood or pick fruit. The Bishnois of Hissar and Rajasthan object to cutting a tree growing by a pond. The reverence for tree life has gone to such extremes that wood-cutting and kiln- burning are regarded as unlucky occupations as both of them involve the destruction of living trees and of insects in the earth in the burning of bricks. That is why wood- cutters and kiln-burners are said to be shortlived. Where religion has given protection to certain ancient trees, little more is re- quired. The sorrow-removing her tree (Zizyphus jujuba) of the Golden Temple at Amritsar and the sacred garna (Carissa spinosa) of village Bodal in Hoshiarpur district are trees of great antiquity, and are held in great reverence by the Sikhs. Besides these there are many trees which are in need of special protection. There is a giant arjan tree near Agra which deserves such protection. The biggest mango tree in the world is growing in an obscure village named Burail in tahsil Kharar, District Ambala, and only came to public notice during the anti-capital agitation, as this village happened to be included in the proposed site for the new capital of The Punjab. It has been given the name of "Chhappar" or thatched house, probably because it gives protection to a number of wayfarers from the heat of the sun and rain. The circumference of its stem is 32 feet. It has nine main branches trailing close to the ground, 5 to 12 feet in circumference, and 70 to 80 feet in length. Each of these branches looks like a giant tree. The total area occupied by the crown of the tree is 2,700 square yards. The average yield of the tree is reported to be 450 maunds. It is said that when 20 cartloads of mangoes plucked from this tree reached Patiala a few years ago, people asked whether a whole orchard had been plucked. It is desir- able that such trees should be given legal protection as national monuments. Some of the Himalayan valleys are in grave danger of losing their character on account of excessive grazing and growth of rumex. Apart from other vegetation, the sheep and ponies which are taken to alpine meadows above the tree-line by graziers in the months of April and May graze mainly on rumex. A symbiotic relationship has developed between the sheep and rumex. While the sheep feed on rumex, in their turn they manure the pasture land with their droppings, which, in turn, further promotes an extensive growth of rumex. The result has been that more attractive, but less edible alpine plants are driven out by rumex, which now covers big areas in the alpine valleys of the Himalayas like that of the Pindari glacier. In the interest of the tourist industry, it is very necessary that some of the beautiful alpine valleys of the Himalayas are declared as plant sanctuaries ; and not only the collection of beautiful and rare plants controlled, but the grazing of sheep and cattle also prohibited. This is necessary in the interest of the tourist industry and botanical studies, as much as for checking soil erosion. 77 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA Nature conservation and conservation of soil, forests, grassland and water are intimately interconnected. Most changes in nature are slow, insidious, and not readily detectable. A change in the balance of power between small organisms in the soil, a slowly dropping water-table these are potent factors in the destruction of a countryside. What has to be done to conserve the soil and water resources so as to maintain or establish a series of varied and most delicately balanced conditions ? This question is just as fundamental to agriculture, horticulture, forestry, game preservation and fisheries, as it is to the management of national parks. Soil erosion occurs as a result of the removal of the plant cover on account of deforestation by man or by the uncontrolled grazing of cattle and goats or the utili- zation of grasslands for agriculture. To understand the disastrous results of soil erosion it is necessary to know what soil is. Soil is more than a mere disorganized rock material. It has been aptly described as a living organism. Apart from the soil particles, there arc numerous bacteria, protozoa, diatoms and other soil microorganisms along with the decayed remains of plants which compose the soil. Leaves of trees, bushes and herbs form a protec- tive cover which acts as a sponge, absorbing the run-off water. This water percolates through the humus layers to the minerals of the soil and accumulates in underground storage reservoirs, which give birth to numerous fresh-water streams. With the plant cover removed by the action of man and animals, the run-off discharge of water increases at an alarming rate. Gorrie has made observations on the run-off data in the Pabbi Range, Jhelum District, and has found that in an area which is fairly covered with trees the maximum run-off is less than 100 cusecs per square mile, while in the land where persistent cattle- and buffalo-grazing has destroyed the plant cover, the run-off rises to 1,600 cusecs. Moreover, silt-laden water has a sealing effect on the pores of the soil and the amount of seepage is considerably reduced. The silt-laden water has also a sand-papering action on the floor and sides of the channel. Valuable salts containing potassium, phosphorus, calcium and nitrogen as well as microorganisms, which play an important part in the proper development and functioning of the roots, are lost. When more surface soil is washed away, clefts appear and gullies are formed. During monsoons, the rain water rapidly flows away, flooding the countryside. Thus water conservation becomes a serious problem ; the water level falls and the country, in general, becomes dry and barren. The land becomes useless for agriculture and does not even produce enough grass. The repercussions of all these changes on wild life are serious. With the disappearance of grasslands, forests and fresh water streams, wild life also begins to disappear. The erosion problem of the Siwaliks is a case in instance. Records, which are available, show that in the middle of the nineteenth century, these ranges were covered with thick vegetation, which harboured a number of wild 78 NATURE CONSERVATION AND NATIONAL PARKS animals. These forests were protected by the feudal landlords and rajahs for shikar. In the conditions which prevailed in the last phases of the Sikh rule and the early days of British occupation of the Punjab, the hillmen further encroached upon the forests. Grazing of goats and cattle and the cutting of trees continued unchecked for a long time. In the early nineteenth century, the chos, which arc now torrential mon- soon rivers, were perennial fresh water streams which furnished valuable irrigation in the submontane area of Hoshiarpur. With the disappearance of the plant cover, these perennial fresh water streams became torrential monsoon rivers, which now- wash away large quantities of soil and have covered fields, which were once fertile, with sand. The forest-covered Siwaliks have degenerated into bare hillocks which are not capable of producing enough even for the starving population of human beings, goats and cattle, much less of providing food and shelter to wild life. What remedies should be adopted to check soil erosion ? Closure to gra/ing and its substitution by grass-cutting and stall-feeding, and replacement of goats by sheep which are less destructive, have been suggested. Agricultural practices in areas in the Himalayas and submontane areas also need to be modified. Terracing, bund- ing, contour ridging, contour furrowing, crop rotation and strip cropping also require attention. However, the sovereign remedy is reafforestation, and 'PLANT MORE TREES' should be our slogan for the next decade. 79 CHAPTER X PLANTING TREES IN VILLAGES RE AT opportunities exist in the villages of India for planting fruit, timber and fuel trees for the use of villagers. Fuel and timber trees can be grown in village pasture lands and near cattle-sheds, and fruit and ornamental trees in the compounds of houses, village schools, mosques, temples and Gurdwaras, and along boundaries of fields and on the bullock runs of wells. To push forward a programme of tree planting, there is need for nurseries for supplying plants to the villagers. Needless to say that facilities in the form of readily available plants from nurseries raised for the purpose at district and block headquarters and panchayatghars in villages are far more important than mere propaganda. A comprehensive tree plantation programme for villages would include reno- vation of existing orchards, planting of new orchards, individual planting of fruit trees like mangoes, lemons, sweet limes, guavas, papayas, kalhal and bananas in the compounds of houses of farmers or in the form of shelter-belts in farms where the fields are consolidated into blocks. It would also include raising of fuel plan tat ions on waste lands which are commonly used for pasturing cattle. Consolidation of scattered and fragmented holdings will greatly help in pushing forward tree plantation programmes in villages. When scattered fields are brought together, homesteads similar to those in Europe can easily develop. The farmer with his family and livestock will live on the land and the problems of insanitary villages and inefficient cultivation will also vanish. The pattern of farming which may suit the needs of the teeming peasant popu- lation of the Indo-Gangctic alluvial plains of India may be described as mixed farming, practised on an individual basis by farmers on consolidated blocks of land. Mixed farming may be described as commensalism, in which man, animal, tree and soil are linked together to their mutual advantage. An irrigated soil provides crops and trees for the benefit of man and animal, and they, in their turn, fertilize the soil by providing manure. Under such a pattern of farming, each family keeps a couple of buffaloes or cows and some poultry, and grows a patch of vegetables, crops and fruit trees along the boundary of the farm for use as well as for sale. In wet areas, fish culture may also be practised in a small tank in the farm. For a homestead in moderately wet areas, an ideal plantation scheme would be like this : A shelter-belt of timber trees like shisham and babul at the back with fruit trees like grafted mangoes, papaya, guava, lemons and sweet limes on the 80 PLANTING TREES IN VILLAGES remaining boundaries. A couple ofkathals, which provide the farmer's family with a delicious vegetable, may also be grown. It may be mentioned that all the trees which we have listed are dwarf trees which cast little shade, and hence arc not injurious to crops. There are two trees which were very popular with the ancient Hindus, and in their house-planting schemes they always recommended their planting in certain specified directions. These are the bael (Aegle marmelos) whose fruit is useful in digestive ailments, particularly diarrhoea and dysentery, and amla (Phyllanthus emblica) whose fruit has been found to be particularly rich in vitamin C and is used for making chutneys and pickles. Farmers in the Punjab and Rajasthan usually own fair-sized cattle-sheds. Shade is an urgent necessity in cattle-sheds for protecting cattle, particularly buffaloes, from the heat of the sun. Quick-growing trees like bakain (Melia azcdaracK) should be planted in clumps in the compounds of cattle-sheds interspersed with mulberry trees. These trees would require protection only in the first three years. Mulberry twigs are commonly used for making baskets for use in the cattle-shed and the house in the Punjab, while bakain yields valuable insect-proof timber. The creation of fuel plantations has an important bearing on agriculture. It is due to lack of fuel that the cultivator is forced to burn nearly one-half of his cattle dung. Chaturvedi has estimated that the fuel value of a ton of fresh dung is equal to about \ ton of firewood, which is worth about four rupees. The manurial value of a ton of fresh dung is approximately nine rupees. Thus, the loss involved in utili- zing 50 million tons of manure as fuel in Uttar Pradesh alone at rupees five per ton amounts to 250 million rupees. If fuel plantations arc raised, cow-dung will be uti- lized for manurial purposes, and such plantations will also arrest wind and water erosion of soil. Village shamilat, the common land which is used for pasturing cattle, is ideal for village plantations. Old fallow land which has been out of cultivation for a long time can also be planted with trees. The question is whether these plantations should be raised and managed by individual farmers or by the village panchqyats. Plantations under the supervision of the panchayat and common ownership of the trees are an ideal solution, but the difficulty lies in the lack of corporate sense in many villages. Usually, we find that everyone's responsibility is no one's responsibility, and trees planted with great effort are grazed off by cattle. So we have to adopt both : In a village where a panchayat is functioning successfully the plantation should be raised by the panchayat, which can also appoint village youngmen as guards for protecting the trees in the first two years. In some villages, it would be more feasible to partition the village waste land into allotments. These allotments should be enclosed by kutcha walls to give protec- 81 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA lion to young trees. Where the water-table is fairly high, a kutcha well may also be dug in the plot. Near the boundary wall, thorny fuel trees like babul or mesquite, and in the middle area, fruit trees like desi mango and kathal may be planted. The fruit trees may occupy 25 per cent of the area ; the rest should be covered by fuel and timber trees. For an ideal village plantation, we require trees which provide fuel and fruit as well as small timber for agricultural implements. So the species selected must be fast-growing, easily grown and good coppicers. The following species are recommended : For fuel and timber. Babul can grow almost anywhere in dry, waterless tracts, eroded ravines and on marshy banks of jhils. It yields excellent fuel as well as fine timber for agricultural implements and wheels of bullock-carts, and its bark is used for tanning leather. Shisham yields excellent fuel and timber and is a fast grower. It has been extensively used for covering sand-covered fields along the banks of chos in Hoshiarpur district and is a good coppiccr. Bakain is a very fast-growing tree and yields insect-proof timber for ploughs. Mesquite can easily grow in sandy and rocky soil. Dhak will grow on the worst soil and can even tolerate mild usar. It is a good coppicer. Bamboos can easily be planted near ponds. Bamboo has many uses in the farm. In the case of mulberry, only desi toot should be encouraged. "Desi* * fruit trees. Good varieties of desi mangoes with thin juice and good flavour and stones of grafted varieties like Safeda, Dussehri and Langra should be selected and grown. In areas with a rainfall of over 30 inches, kathal trees should be encouraged. Mahua is a popular tree in Oudh and is valued for its fruit as well as wood. It can grow on mild usar. The jamun variety with a big-sized fruit, known as Ra-jamun, should be encouraged. This is one of the few trees which stand water-logging and can be grown on areas liable to be flooded. Tamarind yields edible fruit as well as excellent coal for producer-gas engines. Fodder trees provide valuable cattle feed in the winter months when grasses are not available. As compared to grasses, some leaf fodders, particularly those of kachnar and toot, are exceptionally rich in essential nutrients such as crude fat and protein, lime and nitrogen-free extractives. The best leaf fodder species arc kachnar, toot, nim and babul. Fodder trees also deserve to be grown in village plantations. The Forest Tree Relation Department of the TVA has developed an unusual line of research which concerns the development of tree crops. Elaborate experiments were conducted to discover suitable trees and shrubs that yield crops of fruits or 82 PLANTING TREES IN VILLAGES nuts which are either directly available for human consumption or can be fed to pigs or other livestock. Incidentally, with more trees the bird population also multi- plies. Black walnut, filberts and sumachs have proved a success. A very large experimental arboretum as well as several hundred demonstration farms are main- tained for work of this nature. In India, the subject of tree crops deserves more attention at the hands of the Forest Departments. Tree crops can be encouraged in Government forests as well as in private village forests. Wild fruit trees like her (Zizyphus jujuba) and toot (Morus alba) can be propagated on waste lands and in forests on a big scale. Ber provides a delicious fruit of many varieties which is eaten both in the fresh and dried condition. It is also an excellent fodder tree and its leaves are fed to goats and buffaloes. It is an extremely hardy tree which can stand drought as well as frost, and is ideal for barren districts with comparatively poor rainfall. Ber also provides a valuable famine food. By selection and hybridization, the fruit can be improved in size as well as in taste. 83 CHAPTER XI PLANNING YOUR HOME GARDEN /GARDENING, like music, is one of the most sensitive of fine arts. A landscape V^JT designer should be an artist, an aesthete, a botanist, a gardener and an architect. As an artist he should have an eye for colour and form, and as an aesthete, love for nature and beautiful plants. He should also know the anatomy, physiology and ecology of plants, as well as the principles of sculpture, architecture and engi- neering to appreciate the relationship between plant form and architecture. He should not only be able to select plants which are suitable for the soil, but also possess a highly trained aesthetic sense so that he is able to appreciate the principles of balance, rhythm and accent in the planting of trees. Beauty and utility should be harmoniously combined, and we must give up the idea that to be useful a thing must be ugly, and an object is useless because it is beautiful. Beauty and utility were at opposite poles a century ago when expensiveness and ornamentation were the chief canons of beauty, and it was thought necessary that a chair or a table must be expensively carved to be beautiful. Now we appre- ciate that a piece of furniture or crockery can be simple in design and yet be beautiful. The ideals of utility and beauty have coincided. Now we realize that whatever is to be designed must perform its function easily, thoroughly and grace- fully. In fact, all true beauty is functional. The body of a well developed woman is beautiful because it expresses its function of procreation and maintenance of the species so well. A teapot is beautiful when it can hold a sufficient amount of hot water and pour it out in a steady stream. A teapot from which the hot water trickles out drop by drop or in a torrent cannot be called beautiful. Similarly, a garden in which trees of all varieties are jumbled together without regard to the colour of flowers, the shape of crowns and the height of plants cannot be called beautiful. A garden is a place for repose and quiet contemplation of beauty, and if its design is such that one experiences a sense of irritation, it is badly designed. In a garden design one has to see that a tree is placed properly and that the right tree is selected. If a cheap oleograph of Ravi Varma showing Shiva with serpents coiled around his neck is placed in a sitting room, it will make no difference against which window it is hung, because it will look equally hideous in all shades of light. If one possesses a Himalayan landscape of Bireswar Sen, Brewster or Roerich showing the steel grey Himalayan snows after sunset, or inimitable lonely mystical figures in the mellow starlight, one has to be careful where it is placed. If it is hung in a heavily curtained dark sitting room, or opposite a door where light reflects from the glass of the frame, it is decidedly out of place. So you have to select 84 PLANNING YOUR HOME GARDEN your picture as well as a place in your house to display it. Similarly, you have to select your tree, and also a good site for it. If a dwarf kachnar is placed behind a tall colvillea, it is a bad design. Design thus deals as much with the placing of the object as with the object itself. Roote and Kelly have defined landscape design as the "satisfactory and conse- quently beautiful composition of natural areas shape of earth, trees, and sky in three dimensions". The tree form shows a remarkable adaptation to topography. We usually find that the shapes of the crowns of trees which grow in a particular locality are adapted to the landscape. Thus the twisted cryptomerias of Japan grow on irregular volcanic rocks, the elongated conifers like the pine, deodar, cypress and fir with columnar stems and elongated globose crowns harmonize with the pyramidal mountains of the Himalayas, and the semi-globose oaks, chestnuts, maples and apples go so well with the rolling downs and small hillocks of England and France. On the other hand, umbrella-like acacias andgul mohurs and semi-umbrella-like nims, mahuas, mangoes, banyans and pipals of the alluvial plains of North India are admirably suited to the flat nature of the country. Contrast these with the grotesquely twisted trees of the Vindhyas which grow on inhospitable rocks. The modification of the tree shape and crown is possibly related to light. I have seen columnar pine-like pipal trees in congested gardens. A tree with an umbrella or a semi-umbrella-like crown assumes its natural shape when plenty of space is available for the spreading of its branches. The linear habit of the conifers is so well adapted to crowding on a hill- side. Possibly, it originated as a mutation and the resemblance of pyramidal or linear crowns of the conifers to pyramidal mountains is fortuitous. That this peculiar habit is chromosomal in origin is proved by the fact that these trees retain their linear shape even in the plains where there is no crowding in growth and no struggle for light is imposed. It has been found that a tree from one particular habitat when grown in a different habitat serves as an accent material. Thus a cypress, a pine, a deodar, or a Lombardy poplar when grown in the plains serves as a most striking accent. Accent. According to Roote and Kelly, "accent is attained by the use of a plant the distinguishing characteristics of which are quite noticeably different from those of the plants which form its setting." Thus, accent may be secured by planting trees and shrubs of a different scale and form than those growing in the locality. A solitary date-palm, a polyalthia, a poplar, a millingtonia, a pine, a cypress, a deodar, or an araucaria growing in the corner of a lawn serves as an accent material when the other trees and shrubs are low and rounded. Accent may also be produced by using trees with unusual foliage or brilliantly coloured flowers. Thus a solitary colvillea or gul mohur serves as an accent material. Accent material should be used sparingly; a mass of tall and unusual trees all clamouring for attention produces confusion and loss of unity. 85 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA If a person is asked as to what type of planting scheme he would prefer for his house formal or informal you will find that if he is progressive-minded, he will invariably go in for an informal design. It is here that a word of caution is necessary. The words "formal" and "informal" when used in relation to planting, should be taken out of their social or political context. Informal planting is suitable for flat as well as uneven ground and formal plant- ing for flat ground only. As Roote and Kelly have defined, "Informal design may be called a study of space relations, and formal design a study of lines. Informal planting consists of irregular forms irregularly placed, and formal planting consists always of regular forms regularly placed. In a formal scheme, straight lines and angles are emphasized on account of their greater precision, while the informal type lays larger emphasis upon curves and rounded masses. In the formal type little is left to the imagination, few unexpected arrangements occur, and the whole scheme is visible from one point, instead of unfolding gradually to the view." Formal planting is based on geometrical balance, and informal planting on occult or unsymmetrical balance. A formal arrangement is usually based on bilateral symmetry and use of trees with regular and symmetrical crowns. The Moghul gardens with their rows of cypresses are a typical example of formal planting. Formal plant- ing is always used in connection with architecture. It is the architectural clement which predominates, and the trees used repeat the character of the lines of the building. Mark the resemblance of the cypress trees grown in the Taj Mahal to the four columnar towers. Formal planting is particularly suitable for buildings in cities. In cities, lines are straight or rectangular and their primness and unnaturalness must be repeated in the garden of the house by a symmetrical arrangement of the trees and shrubs, and the use of trees and shrubs with regular shape. In some cases, where the crowns of trees and shrubs are not naturally regular, the desired result can be achieved by clipping and pruning. In the formal type of design, the walks, hedges, walls or bedding are considered as line-divisions. The line being the domi- nant factor in the disposition of the area, more attention is paid to the arrangement of the material than to its character. Informal planting is very suitable for houses in our Himalayan belt and in some parts of the Deccan plateau. In this type of planting, the balance is asym- metrical and is a matter of gradual appreciation. In fact, an informal type of plant- ing combines a number of independent balances which form a unity. Its beauties and subtleties are gradually unfolded and not thrust all of a sudden before the gaze of the onlooker. The Japanese garden is a typical instance of informal planting. The horticultural element preponderates in this type of planting. Free use is made of shrubs which are placed at unequal distances individually or in groups. Trees are selected for their individual value beauty of the colour of flowers, their fragrance or the charm of their foliage or the twisted shape of their branches. 86 PLANNING YOUR HOME GARDEN If planting of ornamental trees in the compounds of private houses is properly planned, their cumulative effect will be very striking, and thus private individuals can create an artistic environment for their families and also add to the beauty of the town which has claims on them as its citizens. Unfortunately, ornamental trees find a very unimportant place in our house-building schemes. Few people realize that ugly-knotted nim trees, dark mango and siris trees with noisy rattling pods produce a very ugly effect and mar the beauty of even the most modern-looking building. Compounds of houses with a crowded growth of mangoes, guavas and jack-fruits look gloomy, dark, depressing and dismal. When you are building a new house, the first step you should take is to cut all existing siris, mahua, babul and other trees, most of which are self-grown. This may appear painful especially when mature trees are concerned, but it is a necessity, for no planning is possible unless the existing confusion is cleared. In any case, if shade is a problem, the existing self-grown trees should be gradually removed. After this preliminary surgery is over, start the new plantation. The best plan for a house of an average size (on a plot of two acres and less) is as follows : plant ornamental flowering trees of medium size at the sides, dwarf ornamental trees or shrubs in front and fruit trees at the back of the house where they arc not visible from the main entrance. In the case of small and medium-sized houses with small compounds, orna- mental trees should be planted only on the outer boundaries. It is no use planting avenues on the inner roads in a small compound, for such avenues produce a stifling effect and the compound appears narrower still. If you have about two acres of land, then have a double row of trees at the sides ; the outer row should be of evergreen shade trees with ornamental foliage like Acacia auriculiformis, Polyalthia longifolia, Putranjiva roxburghii or Phyllanthus emblica. Have a row of one species on one side and of another on the other. The first three of these have a compact linear crown and beautiful foliage. Planted at a distance of 15 feet, they produce a beautiful screen which also serves as a background for the flowers of ornamental flowering trees which should be put in the second inner row at a distance of about eight feet from the outer row. Only dwarf flowering trees which are listed separately should be grown, for it is no use putting big trees with spreading umbrella-like crowns like the gul mohurs in com- pounds of small houses where adequate space is not available for their full growth. There are also a number of trees and shrubs which emit fragrance at night time, especially during rains, such as Gardenia lucida, G. Jlorida, G. latifolia and Ces- trum nocturnum. These can be planted to their best advantage opposite windows and doors of bedrooms, so that one may enjoy their fragrance in the evenings, particularly in the summer months. While planning your ideal home, do not forget to pay proportionate attention to the layout of your compound. The house and the garden should be designed as a 87 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA unit, and one should consider how the garden will look from the house, and how the house will appear from the garden. The garden provides a background and setting to the house, as a frame to a picture. The view of the garden from the house is very important and there should be something pleasant and colourful to look at from every door, window and verandah. Facing the verandah beyond the open lawn, one may plant pink cassia, amaltas, pel tophorum, jacarandas or bauhinias which all flower from March to June, the hot months in which we sit in the verandahs of our houses. However, do not smother the house with trees. The trees should be restricted to the boundary wall and corners of the plot, and have a level, quiet and restful lawn in front of the house. In a small plot of land, a feeling of spaciousness is given by a fore- ground of lawn, and if trees are planted too near the house, the result is stifling confu- sion and a narrowing of the compound. As regards a design for your garden, a sound advice for a person building a modern house is to choose a simple design harmonizing with the plain architecture of the house. Intricate flower-beds with borders, unnecessary hedges, meaningless paths, useless pergolas, sun-dials, fountains, statues and unnecessary green-houses should be avoided. Star-shaped and polygonal flower-beds are difficult and more costly to maintain and appear irritating, as compared with simple rectangular, round or oval plots which are not only easier to maintain, but are also restful. If there is an uneven piece of land, make use of it by making terraces for the growth of annuals. Annuals grown on four to five terraced plots give a fine display. The flower-beds should be at least six to ten feet broad, for the annual herbaceous border with tall annuals at the back, medium-sized plants in the middle and dwarf annuals in front cannot be displayed to its best effect in narrow strips of land. So far as verandahs are concerned, it is better to keep them free of crotons, ferns and such other plants. Too many flower-pots in verandahs, the relic of early Anglo-Indian gardening, create untidiness and are also favourite haunts of snakes, scorpions and spiders. Fern-houses also go ill with modern houses. On the other hand, cacti with their peculiar globular, cylindrical and snake-like shapes fit in ad- mirably well with modern architecture, and a rock garden with an assorted collection of cacti is an asset to a modern house. Lan tanas, hazara orange, petraea and bougain- villeas grown in standards also add a good deal of charm to a compound. Do not have too many of these. A few plants judiciously placed at appropriate places produce a far more pleasing effect than a jumble of plants. Simplicity of treatment and design is the keynote of the modern garden. Hedges form an important component of the garden in the compound of a house. Here, too, one must discard formalism. Place a hedge where it is necessary and where it can serve some purpose. Hedges can be used for separating the kitchen garden from the flowering garden of annuals, or for screening a portion of the garden where one can recline in comfort in the sun during winter, A variety of cypress called PLANNING YOUR HOME GARDEN mor pankhi forms an excellent hedge, and on account of its evergreen nature and dark green colour is to be preferred to common dodoneas and durantas. Hedges are used for marking the boundaries of the compound, and for screening servants' quarters, garages and other unsightly features of the house. Where the land available is small, do not have the building in the centre. This will result in the creation of ribbons of land on the sides, which cannot be of much use. Place the building on one side, thus leaving a fairly ample space for a lawn in front and on one side in the shape of an L, the sides of which can be planted with dwarf ornamental trees. In planting, one should also overcome the craving for symmetry, and not plant exactly similar trees on both sides. In the art of decoration, a balancing effect is more desirable than dead geometrical symmetry. Two groups of trees of two different sizes on the sides create an artistic balancing effect. In modern decoration, the tendency is to break the symmetry in such a way that a balance results. There are some who would rather have plants which produce flowers all the year round, than annuals which flower for only a couple of months. Where space is limited, there is much to be said in favour of this view. Canna beds, ornamental shrubs like Myenia erecta, red, yellow and orange varieties of ixora, blue plumbago and zinnia linearis, a perennial dwarf zinnia with orange-coloured flowers, provide a good substitute for annual flowers. Ganna beds can be laid out opposite bathrooms, as their broad leaves have a quick rate of transpiration and provide an easy solution for the drainage problem. Vegetable gardening has its artistic side as well. Neat rows of cauliflowers, egg-shaped white brinjals and scarlet tomatoes look attractive. Bottle gourds and snake gourds, when grown over a scaffolding of tree trunks supporting a roof of twigs, appear very charming in the month of November. Beans, pethas, and pump- kins may also be grown on such supports where they are safe from monkeys and other pests. DWARF ORNAMENTAL TREES SUITABLE FOR SMALL COMPOUNDS Flowering trees Acacia auriculiforniis Jacaranda mimosaefolia Alangium lamarckii Rrownca coccinea Bauhinia purpurea B. ariza B. varicgala KUinhovia hospita Buteafrondosa Lagerstroemia thorclli Cassia fistula Mcsua ferrea C. javanica Millctia auriculata C. margitiato Pongamia glabra Cochlospermum gossypiwn Plumeria rubra and P. a'ba Cordia sebestina Saraca indica Cratacva religiosa Solatium wrightii Erythrina blakeii, E. crista-galti Spathodea nilotica 89 10 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA Guaiaam officinale SUrculia cohrata Gliricidia maculata Tciomella undulata Holarrhena antidysentcrica Thespesia populnea Fragrant trees and shrubs Alstonia scholaris Ixora pamjlora Anthocfphalus inditiis Lawsonia alba Artabutrys odoratissimus Magnolia grandiftora Gardenia lucida Michelia champaca G. latifolia Murraya exotica G. florida Xyctanthes arbor trislis Hiptage madablota Schinus molle Trees with ornamental foliage Averrhoa carambola CUharexylum wbterratum Callistcmun lanceolatus Polyalthia lungifolia Trees with ornamental fruit Hazara urangr It is not intended, however, that fruit trees are to be totally banished from the compounds of private houses. From the aesthetic point of view, they should on no account be grown in the front part of the compound of the house because of their unattractive appearance. They should be relegated to that part of the compound behind the house where they will not be visible from the entrance. The governing principle should be aesthetic planting in the foreground and economic planting in the back yard of the house. Economic planting should be unobtrusive enough to escape notice and should attract the least attention. Another nuisance which results from the planting of mangoes andguavas is that of flying foxes and parrots. While flying foxes produce eerie noises at night time, the parrots play havoc with the fruit during daytime. As M. D. Chaturvedi observes, "On no account should a residential compound be permitted to degenerate into a fruit garden with the necessary accompaniment of contractors, mails and beating of kerosene tins and other weird noises devised to scare away birds and animals." Even for the back part of the house, one should be careful in the selection of fruit trees. Citrus plants like grapefruit, oranges, sweet lime and lemons are particu- larly desirable on account of the sweet smell of their flowers ; their fruit is rich in vitamin content, and is a welcome addition to the table. Carissa carandas has scented flowers, and its fruit is ornamental and is used for pickling. Other trees which may be planted are figs (Black Ischia and Black Turkey) , dwarf-grafted mango varieties like Dussehri, Sufeda and Banarasi Langra, papaya, bael and grafted amla. Papaya fruit contains pepsin, an enzyme which digests proteins and is very helpful for meat eaters. 90 PLANNING YOUR HOME GARDEN The amla fruit contains a very high percentage of vitamin C. Figs are a laxative, and are beneficial to dyspeptics. Where a big area is available, say, five acres or more, one can make use of tall trees like Eucalyptus, trees with spreading crowns like gul mohurs and pink cassia. In such compounds, one can also have avenues along the inner roads. For avenues, trees with long, linear and symmetrical crowns are suitable, for they appear graceful when grown in a line, and also do not obscure the view of the house. An avenue of Polyalthia pendula appears very attractive along an ascending road. There is a beautiful avenue of this pendulous variety of asokan in "Kamla Retreat," the house of Padampat Singhania at Kanpur. Other trees suitable for avenues of approach roads are Polyalthia longifolia, Acacia auriculi-formis, Callislemon lanceolate, Eucalyptus, Sterculia alata, and Averrhoa carambola. Only trees with regular and shapely crowns, and preferably those with pyramidal, linear, or spire-like tapering ones, are suitable for planting in the form of avenues. Other requisites are a straight stem, preferably tall, and a rich evergreen foliage. In big compounds with long drives, avenues are desirable. However, the choice should be restricted to one species only, as the beauty of an avenue lies in the uniformity of the crowns of trees and their growth. There are some trees, like the Royal Palm (Oreodoxa regia), which appear attractive when grown in the form of avenues in public parks only. In compounds of houses they appear unsuitable. They impose a mechanical regularity on an avenue which may appear attractive along a broad public road, but turn out to be irritating in the compound of a house. Three to four rows of Eucalyptus trees grown at the back of a big house provide a grand background. Eucalyptus is a gregarious tree, looking attractive only when grown in a clump. A single row of Eucalyptuses on the sides of a house looks ugly as well as awkward. If it is desired to have Eucalyptus at the back, plant three to four alternating rows close together. Colvilleas, which also grow very tall, look very majestic when grown at the corners in the back row. A large compound also provides scope for planting dwarf ornamental flowering trees in clumps, and in alternating rows. Even if big trees arc grown, overcrowding should be avoided and the temptation of planting too many trees should be resisted. Better confine your choice to a few select trees rather than aim at the creation of a botanical garden. Asokan can be effectively used for screening off the compound of a big house from a public road. The asokan avenue along the compound wall of the Government House at Lucknow is an admirable example of this type, and a thick, close-growing asokan row forms a tall hedge, not only ensuring privacy, but also acting as a filter for dust. While the symmetrical placing of trees may not be desirable in a small com- pound, it is necessary in a big compound with a building of a large size. Such a 91 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA building should be placed in the centre of the plot. In front, one may have a circular or semi-circular lawn as the space permits, fringed by a road. In the centre of the lawn one may plant a solitary tree with a spreading crown like the gul mohur or pink cassia. If one's predilection is towards water plants, one may place a pool in the centre with red lotuses, and white and blue-purple lilies. Small larvicidal fishes can also be reared in such pools to keep them clear of mosquitoes. The amazing assortment of white and blue purple lilies which Rai Bajrang Bahadur Singh of Bhaduri in Partabgarh district of Uttar Pradesh has been able to collect is a good illustration of the beauty of aquatic gardening which can be enjoyed by the owners of big houses and large compounds with irrigation facilities. Even if a pool for the culture of aquatic plants is not regarded as desirable, it is advantageous to have a small swimming pool at the back of the house built sufficiently high with its waste water discharging into the lawn and the garden. LIST OF ORNAMENTAL TREES SUITABLE FOR BIG COMPOUNDS ONLY Beautiful flowering trees Anthocfphalus indicus Lagastrocmiaflos-reginae Bombax malabariewn Millingionia hortensis Cassia nodosa and C. grandis Peltophorwn femtgincum Chorisia sfteciosa Poinciana regia Colnllea racemosa Sterculia colorata Fragrant tree* Dillenia indica Pterospermum acerifolium Mimusops elengi Trees with ornamental foliage Eucalyptus (all species) Putranjiva roxbwghii Phyllanthus emblica Terminalia arjuna Shade trees Dios/yros embryopteris Kigelia pinnata Fiats retusa Tamarindus indica F. infectoria 92 CHAPTER XII AVENUES FOR NATIONAL AND STATE HIGHWAYS THE planting of a tree to provide shade to wayfarers and cattle was regarded as an act of piety in ancient India. Emperor Asoka was one of the earliest Indian monarchs who planted shady trees on the roads and in public places. The Moghuls, too, realized the necessity of shade on the roads which they constructed. But there was no conscious planning ; and thepipal, banyan and pakur trees were indiscriminately mixed with nims, tamarinds and mahuas. It was only in Kashmir that they showed some preference for planning and planted magnificent avenues of cAfmzr along the banks of the river Jhelum, which can be seen at their best at Gandharbal and Matan on the way to Pahalgam. Conscious planning of avenues in Europe dates from the sixteenth century when Francis I of France adopted a scheme of planting Lombardy poplars along the main roads of France. The beauti- ful French roads with their grand avenues of spire-like poplars are the result of his effort, and his successors carried on his policy over a long period. The early French emigrants carried the Lombardy poplar to Canada, and we find the graceful tree extensively planted along roadsides in the province of Quebec. A plantation plan for our national, state and district highways is urgently needed. In such a plan, the climate of a place, its temperature, rainfall, soil and water level should be carefully considered and suitable species selected. At present, our roads are planted by P. W. D. engineers who are ignorant about trees. Ulti- mately, planting of trees and replacement of dead trees is left to malis who may plant any tree which comes handy. The result has been unfortunate and our roadside avenues have become a mixture of odd trees, presenting a patchy appearance. M. D. Chaturvedi pleaded for a national policy for roadside avenues in 1937. His valuable pamphlet Roadside Avenues reveals an imaginative approach to this problem of supreme national importance. Some of his ideas were followed by D. L. Sah who drew a fC Working Plan" for avenues of P. W. D. roads in Kanpur district in 1939. This is a pioneer attempt to develop a certain mileage according to a plan. However, considering the total mileage of our roads, it is merely a drop in a bucket. What is desired is a plantation plan for the roads of the country as a whole. On account of indiscriminate plantings and thoughtless replacements, our road- side avenues have become very much mixed. Due to the difference in the shape of their crowns and the rate of their growth, they have a patchy appearance, and from a distance present a jagged skyline. On the other hand, if we plant pure avenues with one species only for a number of miles, they will look harmonious and pleasing, and 97 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA the skyline will be regular and wave-like. // is 9 therefore, very essential that mixtures of different species are avoided and pure avenues of a single species planted over long stretches of road. This will not only improve their appearance, but will also render management more economical and replantation easier, and will rationalize their exploitation for commer- cial purposes. Ifmahuas and nims are grown in pure avenues for miles, an oil-crushing industry can easily be started in such districts. Growing such trees in compact areas will effect a saving in transport. Similarly, the furniture-making industry can be encouraged in the sub-Himalayan districts which specialize in shisham, sal and teak. The tamarind fruit which now only serves as a staple diet of monkeys can be profitably exported to the Punjab and West Pakistan. Mahua flowers can be used in the manufacture of power alcohol. The main function of a roadside avenue is shade. Hence, trees which are quick- growing and provide dense shade should be selected. The trees selected should provide shade not only on the sides, but also in the centre of the road. From this point of view, trees with an umbrella or sub-umbrella crown like nim, mahua, imli and mango are more suitable than trees with a linear elongated crown like teak, Eucalyptus and Milling- tonia. If the trees selected provide shade and also yield valuable timber or fruit, they are all the more desirable. The trees should be planted 40 feet apart so that their crowns may develop freely. Where the road is more than 100 feet wide, a double avenue of trees with the outer avenue near the boundary line should be grown. A section of the Lucknow-Rae Barcli road has such a double avenue, and the road is very shady and cool. Trees for roads should be selected with due regard to rainfall, soil, temperature and water level. Only those trees should be grown along roads which provide thick shade and are also valuable from the economic point of view. The following trees which are also shady and yield products of economic value are recommended. Jiim (Melia azedarach). Its leaves and bark are used for medicinal purposes and its seeds yield valuable oil. It can grow on alkaline usar soil. Mahua (Bassia latifolia). Its fruit is edible and the seed yields oil. It is also orna- mental and its coppery leaves appear beautiful in the months of March and April. Suitable for clayey soil, it can also stand semi-alkaline soil. Imli (Tamarindus indica), a beautiful tree which stands the dust of roads very well ; its fruit and timber are also valuable. Suitable for dry areas. Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo) yields excellent timber. Suitable for sub-Himalayan districts with rainfall over 40 inches. Mango (Mangifera indica) yields valuable fruit and dense shade. Suitable for clayey or mixed soil with the water level at 30 feet or less. Albizzia procera (sufed siris}. A quick-growing beautiful tree. Grows easily on sandy soil. On account of the light yellow colour of the trunk, it reflects even weak light. An excellent roadside tree. 98 AVENUES FOR NATIONAL AND STATE HIGHWAYS Pithecolobium saman (rain tree). Suitable for moist districts with a rainfall of over 40 inches. TREES UNSUITABLE FOR ROADSIDE AVENUES On no account should the following trees be planted along the roadside. Brittle Trees Eucalyptus. All species Millingtonia hortcmis Kugcnia jambolana Albizzia lebbek Cassia tiarnea Fir.us glomerala All these trees have very weak wood, and consequently break easily in a wind- storm. The result is that after a heavy storm roads become blocked and traffic is stopped for considerable lengths of time, and during a storm these trees arc a posi- tive menace to the lives of unfortunate travellers who happen to be on the road. Besides, Eucalyptus and nim chambeli have linear elongated crowns which provide poor shade. Thorny Trees Acacia arable a Acacia modesta Z.tzyt>/ius ji'juba These arc thorny trees and their thorns are a nuisance for the pneumatic tyres of small cars, cycles and motor cycles. 99 CHAPTER XIII AVENUES FOR TOWN ROADS IN India, we have the largest number of flowering trees in the world, indigen- ous as well as exotic, which we can utilize for beautifying our towns. On account of the diversity of climate and soil, we can grow almost any tree from the temperate rhododendrons and double-flowering cherries to the tropical amherstias and browneas. Compared with our opportunities, our achievements are, however, puny. Barring a few cities like New Delhi, Lucknow, Patna, Chandigarh and Bangalore, we have made little use of the tree-material available in our country. Even in countries in the temperate zone, where modern western civilization has made comparatively greater progress, it is only recently that attention has been drawn to the use of trees for beautifying towns. Barring France and Italy, where Lombardy poplars are extensively grown, we find little beauty in the town roads of Europe. With the intensive house-building activity which followed World War I, people in England awakened to the necessity of planting their town roads with beautiful trees. The outer streets of Birmingham show careful planning with liberal use of trees and grass. In Liverpool, grass is grown even between tram-lines with flanking hedges. The French immigrants introduced the Lombardy poplar in Canada, and it is commonly grown as a roadside tree in the cities of Quebec and Montreal. Maple, which is the national tree of Canada as oak is of Germany, is extensively grown as a roadside tree in Canada and the eastern U. S. A. Of all the cities in the temperate regions, the City of Washington is, perhaps, the most aesthetically planted. The amber, yellow and coppery tints of maples, oaks and chestnuts in the Rock Creek harmonizing with the yellow colour of buildings in the autumn months of October and November, leave an indelible impression on one's mind. Japanese double- flowering cherries and peaches, dogwood trees with white and pink flowers, and fragrant magnolias lend grace to the state buildings and monuments of this beautiful American city. However, as compared with tropical and subtropical countries, the tree-material available to the inhabitants of temperate countries is comparatively prosaic. Trees with brilliant flowers and birds with gay plumage occur only in the tropics and sub- tropics. Temperate countries of Europe and America have hardly anything to match the blazing gul mohur avenues of Kandy, the brilliant blue jacaranda avenues of Johannesburg and the graceful palm avenues of North African towns. Considerable attention has been paid to the layout of avenues in Cairo. Along the long road leading from Gizeh to the pyramids, we find a beautiful avenue of 100 AVENUES FOR TOWN ROADS alternating gul mohurand Eucalyptus. Jacarandas are planted extensively along road- sides, and also date-palms mixed with clipped box-like trees. Clumps of date-palms are grown in the back yards of houses. In Morocco, the French colonials have planned the roadside avenues of their towns in an artistic manner. In the main thoroughfare of Rabat, a dwarf variety of date-palm is grown in the form of avenues with grass and beds of annuals at the sides. Triangular plots in the town are planted with Persian lilac and Schinus terebenthifolius which bears red berries in pro- fusion in the month of November. The compounds of private houses are enlivened by orange flowers of Bignonia venusta, magenta-coloured bougainvillaeas, and bright- blue shrubs of Plumbago capensis. The broad aims of town planning arc that the towns must be made more effi- cient, more healthy and more beautiful. For making them healthy and beautiful, we require not only spacious well planned streets designed as a unit, but, also well planned roads and parks with a planned plantation of ornamental trees. What is desired is order, which is not the same thing as uniformity. Dead uniformity with the same stamp placed on all the houses and trees in the whole town will be as un- desirable as our present confusion with everyone following his own sweet will and spreading ugliness. What is desired is an orderly variety with not only houses in a street following a particular design, but trees as well, planted and replaced from time to time according to a plan. For our towns, we are not only in need of a "Road Plan" for traffic but also a "Plantation Plan". For every town of importance a ''Plantation Plan 9 ' should be drawn up and rigidly adhered to. For new roads, it is comparatively easy to plan a plantation of unfamiliar flowering trees, but it is the old roads which present a problem. The whole- sale cutting of existing trees will render them shadeless. Hence, the only practical approach is replacement of dead, decaying and old trees according to a plan, and removal of young trees planted within two to three years. Once a plan is made, it should be rigidly followed not only in new plantations but also in replacements. Some imagina- tive person planned beautiful avenues of flowering trees for the Banaras Hindu University, which have disappeared or have become patchy on account of the absence of a plantation plan and lack of aesthetic taste in those who, later on managed them. Everyone cannot appreciate colour and beauty. While we call to our aid painters and artists for furnishing and decorating our houses, we should also take the help of aesthetically gifted arboriculturists. Arboriculturists who have an eye for colour and beauty should be selected and given training in art schools in garden designing and theories of colour harmony and colour contrast. The artist should be introduced to the garden, and the arboriculturist should be initiated into the arcana of the art school. Both will be gainers from the experience. While the fresh breeze of the garden and the glamour of erythrinas, colvilleas and amaltas will invade the studio, freshening up the minds of the artists, the garden will also gain from the impact 101 11 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA of imaginative and sensitive minds, who will be able to convey their experience to the common man in the form of beautiful pictures. Thus, the blaze of gul mohurs, the glory of colvilleas and the splendour of kachnars will brighten up our homes through- out the year, even when other flowers are dead and gone. On the other hand, we will be spared the pitiable spectacle of arboriculturists who plant pipal and shisham trees on our roads in the towns. While shade and economic utility should be the criteria for selecting trees for national, state and district roads passing through the country, different types of trees are required for town roads. For roadside avenues in towns and cities, shade and beauty are the sole criteria which we should consider while selecting trees. Unfortunately, as the large majority of our flowering trees are deciduous, there are very few trees which combine shade with beauty of flowers. Where the space available is limited and only one row of trees can be grown on each side of the road, flowering trees like gul mohur, amaltas, jacaranda, erythrina and spathodea may be grown alter- nating with shade trees like Eugenia operculata. The choice should be restricted to one species only for each street. Very tall trees like Eucalyptus and millingtonia and trees with spreading crowns like banyan are unsuitable for town roads, because they interfere with electric wires. Medium-sized trees like Eugenia operculata, and pakur (Ficus infectoria], which are extensively grown in New Delhi, are ideal for shade, while for beauty we have a large number of trees to choose from. Double avenues of trees are a necessity in big cities where wide roads are available. In an ideal road for a traffic centre of the metropolis, provision should be made for fast-moving traffic such as motor cars and lorries and slow-moving traffic such as horse-drawn vehicles, bullock-carts and bicycles. A road divided into four sections for slow and fast traffic on each side, separated by islands planted with grass and shrubs in the middle and flanked by footpaths for pedestrians should be our ideal. / recommend double avenues of trees on the outer sides of the footpaths : an outer row of shade trees and an inner row of ornamental flowering trees. The outer row should be com- posed of evergreen shade trees with dense foliage such as tamarind, Polyalthia longi- folia, Eugenia operculata, Putranjiva roxburghii, moulsari (Mimusops elengi], Ficus retusa, nim (Melia a&darach) and pakur (Ficus infectoria}. The function of the outer row is of shade only. These trees should be plantedin pure avenues and not in mixed patches. Growth in pure avenues provides a beautiful skyline and a pleasing effect due to uniform size and shape of the crowns of the trees of the same species, while a mixture creates an ugly confusion with a jagged skyline. The inner rows should be of ornamental flowering trees only. The outer rows of shade trees will provide shade for pedestrians on the footpaths, and at the same time will furnish a green background for the pink, red, crimson and yellow flowers of the flowering trees. The trees in both the rows should be planted at a distance of 30 feet from each other with the trees in opposite rows alternating. 102 AVENUES FOR TOWN ROADS In modern towns constructed in the form of blocks, numbering of streets is desirable, as it is the easiest guide for a newcomer. In old towns, we usually find the roads and streets named after historical personages, officials, and lately after munici- pal commissioners who regard the naming of roads after them as the royal road to fame and immortality. The result has been encrusting of the road crossings with clumsy signboards, particularly when the seeker after cheap popularity insists upon retaining all customary titles. This involves waste of time and energy in correspon- dence, and those who have to send telegrams should be justified in sending a bill to the immortality-hunting gentry who, while perpetuating their own memory, cause so much of inconvenience to others. Bioaesthetic planning will also simplify the problem of naming roads and streets. Streets can be named after the flowering trees which are grown on the road, such as Amaltas Avenue, Kachnar Avenue, Gul Mohur Avenue and Asoka Avenue. Not only the roads will be readily recognizable, but this device will also enable the citizens to familiarize themselves with our common flowering trees. Some imagi- native pioneer has actually named a road in Lucknow as Millingtonia Avenue after Millingtonia hortensis. In every big town, we find triangular pieces of land at the junction of roads. To safeguard against traffic accidents, these plots are not leased for building purposes. There are many such triangular plots in the Civil Lines of Allahabad. At present, they are lying neglected, covered with ugly self-grown jungle trees. How beautiful they can be, particularly the sunken ones, if they are planted with flowering trees ! Only one species of trees should be planted in each triangle. Covered with spathodeas, lagerstroemias, jacarandas and kachnars, these triangular plots will appear very beautiful, serving as nodal points of beauty, affording a welcome shade to pedestrians and a refuge for young lovers. Beautiful roads and well planned parks and squares will bring the beauty of nature within the reach of the common man in our towns and cities. The dwellers of slums will also appreciate the beauty and splendour of flowering trees, or at least their children will, who will have the opportunity of growing up in a new environment. Those who have lived in filthy surroundings for generations cannot be suddenly transformed, in a few years, into lovers of beauty. But the attempt is certainly worth making and results will be tangible after some time. While most of the flowering trees look beautiful when planted in pure avenues, there are some species which flower at the same time; the colour of their flowers also harmonizes, and hence they appear more effective when planted side by side. Some of the flowering trees which flower in the same season are grouped below in schemes with due regard to colour harmony and are recommended for planting along our town roads : 103 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA SCHEME No. 1 Amaltas Gul Mohur Amaltas (Yellow) (Scarlet-orange) (Yellow) This is a very striking colour scheme, the rich yellow colour of amaltas flowers contrasting with the scarlet-orange colour of gul mohur flowers in the month of May when both the trees are flowering. SCHEME No. 2 Peltophorum ferrugineum Rusty shield bearer (Golden yellow) Colvillea racemosa Colvilles Glory (Orange red) Peltophorum ferrugineum Rusty shield bearer (Golden yellow) This colour scheme is very effective in October when both these trees are flower- ing, and a colour effect similar to that in scheme No. 1 is produced. SCHEME No. 3 Jacaranda Grevillea Jacaranda mimosaefolia robusta mimosatfolia (Blue) (Yellow) (Blue) Both these trees flower together in April and a beautiful colour effect, which is soothing in the glare of April sunshine, is produced. SCHEME No. 4 Spathodea nilotica Erythrina indica Spathodea nilotica Fountain tree Scarlet erythrina Fountain tree (Orange crimson) (Scarlet red) (Orange crimson) Both these trees flower in March when they are a blaze of colour. SCHEME No. 5 Cassia nodosa Cassia marginata Cassia nodosa (Pink) (Pinkish red) (Pink) Both these trees flower in May and June when a very mellow colour scheme of pink and red is obtained. SCHEME No. 6 Bmih*nla Scheme Bauhinia B. B. Krugii B. variegata variegata (Light variegata (Purple-mauve var.) (White var.) magenta) (Light pink var.) 104 AVENUES FOR TOWN ROADS This colour scheme which is composed of three varieties of Bauhinia variegata, pink, white and purple-mauve, and light magenta (B. Krugii) is recommended for dust-free roads of residential areas. All these bauhinias blossom in a leafless condition from the middle of February to the middle of March when they look like huge bou- quets of pink, white, purple and light magenta flowers. This is a very pleasing colour scheme and is highly recommended. ORNAMENTAL TREES SUITABLE FOR TOWN ROADS Foliage trees for outer avenue Averrhoa carambola Callistcmon lanceolatum Anthocephalus cadamba Eugenia operculata Polyalthia longifolia Putranjiva roxburghii Sterculia data Pithtcolobium saman Melia azadirachta Tamarindus indica Flowering trees for inner avenue Cassia fistula Bauhinia purpurea; B. variegata Colrillea racemosa Peltophorum ferrugineum Spathodea nilotica Jacaranda mimosaefolia Poinciana regia Lagerstrocmia flos-reginae and L. thorelli Grevillea robusta Gliricidia maculata 109 CHAPTER XIV THE TREE-PLANTING PLAN OF NEW DELHI WHEN Sir Edwin Lutyens came to New Delhi, he asked for a list of trees which could grow there. Griessen of the Horticultural Department prepared a list of trees and shrubs that might be made use of in the planting scheme of the new capital at Delhi. Griessen planted the laid out roads, but on account of unsatisfactory water supply, most of the roads had to be replanted several times. Griessen retired in 1920 and was followed by Mustow, who established the nursery at Jor Bagh opposite the Safdar Jung tomb. Thenceforward, most tree-planting, and much that grows in New Delhi, owe their existence to Mustow. He afforested the ridge. He introduced the mesquite from Mexico, and thus gave India a hardy tree which may even help to make Rajasthan green. Generally, road avenues were inter-planted ; quick growers between the permanent and slow growers. Most of that inter-planting has been cut out. The tree-planting plan of the modern city of New Delhi can serve as a model for many of our towns which have irrigation facilities. Extensive use has been made of many of our flowering trees for brightening up the housing areas, squares and circuses. For avenues, Eugenia operculata with its light green leaves has been found to be the most suitable in New Delhi. It sheds its leaves in late February and renews them in early March, after remaining leafless for only a few days. It has a compact semi-globose crown and its light green leaves are very soothing to the eyes. Avenues of this beautiful evergeen species adorn the parks on both sides of the Kingsway, and are also planted on many roads. Other successful roadside trees are Kigelia pinnata, Pongamia glabra, Ficus retusa, Ficus infectoria, Celtis australis, Sterculia data. Cassia fistula, Anthocephalus indicus, Hardwickia binata and Melia a&darach. The Secretariat and the Government House are the nucleus of the layout of New Delhi, and a number of roads radiate from them. The clipped bushes of Diospyros cordifolia in the lawns in front of the Government of India buildings look very attractive. The trees annually receive a light pruning treatment, the branches being cut at a certain height above the ground. This leaves space for pedestrians to wander about below, and the Pathan-type of hair-cut which the trees receive gives them a smart appearance. The clumps of Jacarandas on the corners of the two Secretariat buildings are a beautiful sight in the month of April. Most of the circuses in the centre of road junctions are enlivened with clumps of flowering trees like Jacarandas, amaltas, gul mohur and kachnar. Where space available is narrow, use has been made of shrubby climbers like the various species of Bougainvillaea and Petraea volubilis. 110 THE TREE-PLANTING PLAN OF NEW DELHI The squares in housing areas have been planted with all types of flowering trees. The semals in Hastings Square with their flaming red flowers are a sight in the months of March and April. Purple and mauve kachnars lend grace to many squares, though they have a rough time at the hands of clerks and the members of their families who pillage their buds ruthlessly for curry. Flowering trees have also been planted at the edges in the compounds of bungalows which arc maintained under the supervision of the Public Works Department. At the gateways, bottle-brush trees with pendulous branches are com- monly grown. We also find trees of Jacaranda mimosaefolia, Bauhinia variegata, B. purpurea, Erythrina indica, Grevillea robusta and Ochna squarrosa. In the foreground, extensive use has been made of ornamental shrubs, and pink oleanders lend a gay note to many bungalows in the Capital. Scented shrubs like Murraya exotica and Cestrum nocturnum exhale their perfume in many bungalows. However, no attempt has been made to vary the planting scheme, and as a result, all bungalows look alike. By adopting different combinations of trees and by planting some of the flowering trees in pure avenues, New Delhi could have been made more colourful. Another defect from which the plantation schemes for compounds of New Delhi bungalows suffer is that fruit trees have been totally ignored, and too much emphasis has been laid on mere ornamentals. The tree-planting scheme of New Delhi can be very much improved, if fruit trees like grafted mangoes, citrus, figs, and papayas are also planted in the back yards, thus achieving a happy compromise between beauty and utility. Ill CHAPTER XV LANDSCAPING CHANDIGARH THE partition of India in August 1947 led to a large scale movement of population. By the end of September 1947, the Indian segment of the Punjab was flooded with lakhs of homeless refugees from West Pakistan. While the refugees from the rural areas were settled in evacuee villages under the Land Settlement Scheme, homes had also to be found for the urban refugees. Some of the existing towns of the Indian Punjab were expanded by building so-called model towns, a type of garden suburbia, to accommodate the refugees who could not find accom- modation in the houses left behind by Muslim evacuees. Many still were left homeless and shelterless. Even the State Government had no centralized location. This led to the search for a new site for the capital, and thus Chandigarh was born. At that juncture, the Punjab was fortunate in having a man of vision in the person of P. N. Thapar as the administrative head of the Capital Scheme. The site was selected by a Committee headed by P. L. Varma, Chief Engineer. It comprises an area of 15 square miles on a plateau, 1,300 feet above sea level with the Sivalik and the blue Kasauli hills in the background. After the acquisition of the site, the first problem was the resettlement of villagers from the villages which had been acquired. Thapar resolved the problem of resettlement of the oustees from the Chandigarh site with great wisdom, tact and sympathy, and found new homes for them in the villages in the periphery of the new City. Apart from this, he set about planning the new capital with resolute energy against heavy odds. He col- lected talented engineers and eminent town-planners and architects from France, England and India. The initial town plan was prepared by Albert Meyer, an American. Corbusier, assisted by Pierre Jeanneret, E. Maxwell Fry and Jane B. Drew, improved upon it, and ultimately produced the famous Chandigarh Plan. The City was planned for a population of 1,50,000 persons to start with, but even- tually, it was to accommodate a population of half a million. Work started on the site in 1951. By April 1952, when Jawaharlal Nehru, the Prime Minister of India, visited the site, the outlines of the City had become visible. On October 7, 1953, the Capital was formally inaugurated by the President of India. Within a period of three years, a new city had grown up upon an empty site. Corbusier sums up the ideals of town planning thus : "The sun, space and verdure are the ancient influences which have fashioned our body and our spirit. Isolated from their natural environment, all organisms perish, some slowly and some quickly, and man is no exception to this general rule. Our towns have snatched men from essential conditions, molested them, starved them, falsified them, 112 LANDSCAPING CHANDIGARH embittered them, crushed them, even sterilised them; the third generation to live in great cities tends to sterility. Fashioned throughout millennia by the conditions of nature, man cannot with impunity disrupt the natural order. Shut up in masonry walls and conditioned to the smell of petrol fumes, men in large towns lead a cramped and unhappy life, deprived of the essential joys of life sun, space and verdure. Unless the conditions of nature are re-established in man's life, he cannot be healthy in body and spirit. "The fundamental elements are: accord with the laws of nature ; harmony of actions in the recurrent cycle of the solar day of 24 hours ; experience of the 'essential joys'; an intensity in consecrated work and in consecrated leisure ; definition of the metier of the contractor ; exploitation of the architectural revolution accomplished in the laboratory by the 19th and 20th centuries ; the idea of unity regulating the doctrine of the 'built domain' and its necessary overhauls ; the intervention of the 'law-giver' reuniting again nature with the built work, in the land, in the province, in the region, in the town, determining the scales and types of built volumes and tracing new routes; the whole in confor- mity with the lay of the land." In search of the sun, space and verdure, man drifts from the ancient town and establishes himself in garden suburbia. Ultimately, the so-called garden towns also develop and expand, reducing the outskirts of the towns to miserable shabbiness. Nature melts under the invasion of roads and houses. Horizontal garden towns in the grip of the tentacles of the ancient city are ultimately re-absorbed and the promised seclusion becomes a crowded settlement. According to Corbusier, the real solution lies in the Vertical Garden City in which the superimposed buildings rise above the park which contains amenities such as sports grounds, creches, primary schools and clubs. The housewife is also liberated from domestic work. By the concentration of a large number of dwellings in one building, a considerable area of open ground is liberated, the site effectively enlarging and merging with the surrounding countryside. The dwelling unit allows the organization of common services such as water supply, electricity, air- conditioning, medical services, sports and education. The corridor street lined with houses on both sides is abolished, and in the place of confusion, architectural amplitude of simple splendour results. The town is no longer a senseless pile of stone and mason- ry but becomes a park, and man and nature are harmonized. Avenues of trees, sometimes three to five rows thick, provide green walls, and grouping of trees in the form of rectangles, squares and circles creates green rooms. These are the ideals of town planning as propounded by Gorbusier, and it is necessary to understand them if one would like to appreciate the basic concepts which underlie town planning in Chandigarh. In a country with hot summers, multi-storeyed residential flats, unless they are air-conditioned, are a positive dis- 115 12 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA comfort. Hence in Chandigarh, the ideal of the vertical garden city has been partially accepted, in the sense that residential buildings are double-storeyed while the office buildings are multi-storeyed. Thus Chandigarh represents a compromise between the ideals of the vertical and the horizontal garden cities. Towns are biological phenomena, according to Corbusier, and they have the brain, heart, lungs and feet like human beings. It is on this conception that the city of Chandigarh has been planned. The "Capitol" group of buildings comprising the Secretariat, High Court, Legislative Assembly and Governor's House constitutes the head. Spacious parks and green belts which run through the city provide the lungs. The network of roads for vehicular traffic and footpaths for pedestrians constitute the circulatory system. The city centre with commercial buildings and shops represents the heart. The industrial area in the east with its population of factory workers and educational institutions on the west represent the limbs. The entire residential area is partitioned into 30 rectangular habitation units called Sectors, covering roughly an area of 240 acres and with capacity to house 15,000 people. A Sector is practically a self-contained unit with common services such as a High School, a Health Centre, a Club and a Shopping Centre. The resi- dential area occupies the best sites within the area with respect to topography, climatic conditions, sanitation, sun and available green space. Compare this with the discomfort of New Delhi where the only shopping centre is Connaught Place for a large, spread-out inhabited area. Now let us examine the special features of the housing at Chandigarh. In North India with its severe winters and hot summers, there is need of warmth in winter and protection from the hot sun in summer. The general plan of the houses in Chandigarh has been evolved by orientating the houses in such a way that the hot summer sun is kept out, while the winter sun comes right into the rooms. Various elements like sun-breakers and brick jollies have been introduced, which have given a character to the buildings of Chandigarh. The sun-breakers have been devised to intercept the sun, and to insulate the interior of the house from heat. Large glass windows admit into the house the warmth of the sun in winter. Moreover, by the use of these glass windows, the interior of the house is brought effectively in touch with the surrounding landscape. Seen through the glass, the hills, the trees and parks become a permanent extension of the home, and man enjoys the essential joys of life the sun, space and verdure. Sunlight is most essential for health. As Corbusier says, "From the physical point of view, the human being is nothing other than a transformer of solar energy', and, of the numerous forms taken by this energy, it is light, from infra-red to ultra-violet, that constitutes its most indispensable nutriment. For man directly absorbs it through his skin by means of a million papillae tuned to the luminous vibrations like tiny resonators of precision. Furthermore, man absorbs it indirectly through his food, vegetable or animal., a 116 LANDSCAPING CHANDIGARH veritable store of light. Darkness and the sickly light of towns, broken by smoke and dust, are potential causes of tuberculosis, rickets and nervous breakdowns." "The 24-hour cycle and the radiance of the sun alone can teach us how to build. Behind them, the entire cosmos reveals itself, approaches man and is ready to clasp him to its bosom, like a prodigal son who is to be restored to his rights." The site of the young city was practically bare with the exception of a few clumps of mango trees which have been preserved. Chandigarh, like a new-born baby, was waiting to be clothed in a mantle of vegetation. The urgency of planting the Capital was realized by the State Government, and a Landscape Committee, with the present author as Chairman, and Engineers and Architects of the Chandigarh Project as members, was set up to guide the work. Corbusier, who was one of the members of the Committee, suggested the preparation of a chart showing shapes of trees and colour of flowers. This simple chart presented a classification of selected, beautiful, ornamental flowering and foliage trees of India which may be called the aristocrats of the plant kingdom, and provided the basis of all tree-planting in Chandigarh. Let us analyse and classify the elements which constitute the problem of land- scaping and tree-planting in Chandigarh. These resolve themselves into three: firstly, the urbanistic elements which require tree-planting ; secondly, the selection of trees and their classification according to the shape of the crown and colour of flowers; thirdly, the manner and arrangement of trees, i.e. the architectural disposition of the elements of tree-planting. Urban elements affected by tree-planting are the roads, urban spaces with elements of architecture such as the Capitol, University and commercial centres and free urban spaces. Along the roads trees are planted in single rows, in double rows or in multiple rows. In the green belts and other free urban spaces, the trees are planted singly, in homogeneous groups, in heterogeneous groups or in large forest plantations. The keys of town planning are in the four functions Living, Working, Recrea- tion and Circulation. The base of the City Plan is a rectangular grid of heavy traffic roads enclosing the self-contained neighbourhoods or Sectors. The road-and-Sector system almost completely separates vehicular and pedestrian traffic. The Sectors are interconnected by the shopping street running across, and by park belts, lengthwise. The pedestrian can thus traverse the city in both directions without walking on the major traffic streets. The fast-moving traffic is restricted to the rec- tangular grid of heavy traffic roads which are designated V2 and V3. These roads are at the outer sides of the Sectors. Inside the Sectors, protected from fast traffic, are the V4, V5, V6 and V7 which provide access to the houses, shopping centre, schools, hospitals, etc. The avenue of the Capitol consists of a heavy traffic automobile highway of a 117 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA 4 UMANtkTlC IIIMENTf AFFIC1ID VI TMfl PLANTING ? I. TMf V? WTN CLCMUITI OP ARCNlTlCTUftt CAMTOL. CCNTftl tTC* 1. PMIUMMN 1 . AftCMITCCTUHAL I TMf CLEMENTS OF TIM JMLS. >0 TACC1 AMANCtO 8 IHtfi IN DOUMC 4 IftOLATCD. IN HOMOOINOOf GROUP* .IN MTfHOOOW QMUPt. 7. POftllT. 118 LANDSCAPING CHANDIGARH THE VS V* V 7 GREAT FANTASY AND CHARM COLOURS ALL THE VI AM DECIDUOUS AND EVERGRICN ALL SHAPES FOR V7 THE TRtES ARF AO FQO THT GOVFRNON'ft RESIDENCE (*tt CAflTOl iNEET) THC LAWNS AND ROAD& FUNCTIONALLY LAID OUT A TRUF PAKAUISC parallel band of parking, a large pavement on each side with shops and arcades and high buildings. Also outside this and parallel to it is the eroded valley. This road has been planted with green grass and ornamental shrubs like the bougainvillaea. Footpaths which are provided at the sides for pedestrians are shaded by four to five rows of trees. On the one hand, it seems useful to demarcate the automobile highway by a border of high trees, and on the other, to unite with one glance the entire width of the avenue in question, the shops, pedestrians, parking cars and the localized con- tacts with the eroded valley and the leisure space. It is equally necessary to cover the pedestrian promenade with shade along the shops. For the car route, a single or double row of trees with high foliage will permit the eye to travel across. This will be with light and evergreen foliage to avoid the need for sweeping. For pedestrians, a multiple row of trees with very heavy deciduous foliage is required so that the sun's rays may pass through in winter. There must also be some evergreen trees with dark and glistening foliage. This arrangement will contrast the height, the thickness, the colours and the permanency of the foliage, and will explain the various functions of this essential artery of the City. 119 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA SUMMCR SOLSTICE TNC SUN IS ALREADY HIGH IN POSITIONS A* ft AT II-1O AND H-4*. HORIZONTAL VJ HORIZONTAL V 1 VERTICAL V 3 VERTICAL V> lin iONTAL V3 SOLSTICC THC CUN IS HIGH FOR THE POSITION AT.9. SO IN POSITION OR A THC SCTTING SUN AT 4-SOPM IS VCNV UNFAVOURAftLC FIGURE 1 w////////,, VCHTICAL V3 CVCMOMCCN POUAOC ( TO AVOID UPKCCP FROM SWUPtNc) - FORM: SHAPC 2 DCVCCOPMCNT OF HORIZONTAL BRANCHCS IN ORDER TO CNASLC TRMMINC TO FORM A TUNNEL. ARRANGCMCNT: ROW-CACH SIDC , RCOULAR SPACING. CAN AVCNUC OP FICUS INFECTORIA^ HORIZONTAL V3. EVERGREEN TREES ( TO AVOID UPKCCP FROM SWEEPING). FORM; SHAPC *. ARRANGEMENT: RCGULAft SPACING, ONE ROW EACH SIDE 120 LANDSCAPING CHANDIGARH V3 receives only high speed traffic. Choice and planting of trees should be studied to give the best conditions, especially in relation to the glare of the sun. There are two directions of the V3s. Horizontal V3s parallel to the Station Avenue, and vertical V3s which are parallel to the Avenue of the Capitol. In Fig. 1, a & b indicate two positions unfavourable to drivers in relation to the sun. The situation in a for the horizontal V3 is not serious because the sun in summer is almost at its zenith at this time. On the other hand, in b, the vertical V3 will be in a bad way in winter when the sun is low on the horizon, and its rays are in the same direction as the vertical V3. That is why the trees must be chosen and planted differently. On some of the roads, evergreen trees with large umbrella-like crowns like Ficus infectoria have been planted, and in course of time their crowns would meet, forming a green tunnel. For horizontal V3s, the trees should have light foliage (Shape 6). It should be noted that the difference in the tree-planting of the horizontal and the vertical V3s will at once make it clear to the users in which direction they are travelling. The V4 is the place where the most intense activity of the urban life of the sector is assembled. The V4 will be the street which will give its own character to each Sector. Consequently, such a V4 will be different from the others and finished with special characteristics, because it is indispensable to create a great variety across the city, and to furnish elements of classification to the inhabitants. All the possibilities of nature at our disposal are to give to each V4 a personality which will maintain itself in the whole width of the town and thus tic up five or six Sectors traversed by a V4. To specialize the character, each V4 has been planted with trees having different colours of flowers. For example, one V4 is yellow, another red, and yet another blue. The V4 should be lively. Consequently, unlike V3s it can have several different types of trees as well as different types of shapes and mixtures of foliage, deciduous as well as evergreen. For roadside avenues along V4 roads, trees which provide shade and arc also beautiful have been selected. Trees with a regular shape such as cypresses, Lombardy Poplar, asoka, and chorisia are suitable for formal planting schemes. On interior roads where the shape of the crown is not so important, trees with beautiful flowers and foliage such as kacknar, jacaranda, coral tree, amaltas, gul mohur, pink cassia, silver oak, and Pride of India have been planted. The countryside with these trees will be interesting and pleasant in all the months of the year. In summer, the trees would provide shade and in winter sunshine, as the deciduous trees will permit the sun's rays to pass. 121 FLOWERINCi TREES IN INDIA V *. lllimiHMMHIH CA) AN EFFECTIVE MIXTURE OP DECIDUOUS FOLIAGE TO ALLOW SHADE IN SUMMER AND SUNSHINE IN WINTER. () SOME PERMANENT EVERGREEN FOLIAGE TO PROVIDE SCENERY FOR WINTER. ARRANGEMENT. SIMPLE ROWS DOUftLC OR MULTIPLE OR IN ANY OTHER WAV. && J^T) w*?o ft '.*.' ^r A EVERGREEN FOLIAGE P-OR A SB POIMG AWAY WITH NEED FOR SWEEPINt. DECIDUOUS TREES WITH SOMC EVCMGREENS FOR C - SHAPE : S FOR A 4 S- '. 2 .*. POM C . ARRANGEMENT: REGULAR SPACING FOR A . IRREGULAR SPACING AND VARIED FOR C. 122 LANDSCAPING CHANDIGARH Ample areas have been provided for parks in the master plan of the Capital. For these parks informal planting has been adopted. Interior belts with their conti- nuous flow combine with the outer green belts to give a verdant feeling to the whole City. They also give a sense of direction and dramatically culminate in the Capitol. Facing the parks are building groups such as the Public Library, Art Gallery, the Museum and the Girls' College. There are narrow greenways connecting major parks, and an area of 75 acres has been allowed for a zoological garden, and 100 acres for the botanical gardens. Though a large number of trees, both exotic as well as indigenous, have been planted, the old trees, particularly mangoes, whether growing singly or in groups, clumps of date-palm and groves of the Flame of the Forest have been retained in the green belts, thus creating an illusion of great age. A Tree Preservation Order was passed which prohibited the cutting down, lopping or wilful destruction of trees. On account of the promulgation of this Order, a large number of venerable mango trees have been saved from destruction. Apart from preservation of old trees, beautiful effects have been created by planting trees in groups. Trees have been planted in the form of squares and circles, and the rest have been planted in clumps in such a manner that the tallest trees are in the middle and the smaller trees are at the periphery, thus creating pyramids of greenery. Groups of ougeinia, pink cassia, jacaranda, callistemon, amaltas, Pagoda tree, asoka, lagerstroemia, double flowering peach and cherry have been planted in this manner. Bamboos are particularly suitable for this type of planting. Bamboos are of various types giant bamboos, dwarf bamboos, thick bamboos, thin bamboos and green, yellow and striped bamboos. Clumps of various varieties of bamboo in due course will lend a great charm to the parks and open places of Chandigarh. At the bottom of man's heart reigns his boundless yearning for the primordial forest. In the forest, man is brought in contact with his ancestral environment. The deep shade and silence of the forest provide an opportunity for introspection and meditation, and one forgets the worries of life. Trees realize their personality, and perform their duty only when they are planted in numbers. This is particularly true of trees like Eucalyptus, kadamba, chir pine and the yellow siris. A row of Eucalyp- tus trees appears miserable, and one gets a feeling that something is missing and the planting is incomplete. Plant them in large numbers, and see what a beautiful effect they create ! Then, atonce, everything is transformed, sky and light recover their first deep meaning, and an oasis of coolness, silence and shade is created. Some of the parks in Chandigarh were planted exclusively with forests of the chir pine, Eucaly- tus, kadamba and the yellow siris (Albizzia procera) . These are all giant trees which are gregarious and when grown in large numbers create a beautiful effect. The cathedral-like alignment of the shafts of chir pines shooting towards the sky, smooth, pure and inflexible, with their round and plump crowns, is a reminder 123 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA TREE* WITH HIGH TRUNK ft - LIGHT FOLIACC AND EVERGREEN . > TREKS WITH HIGH TRUNKS THICK POLIAGC~DCCIOUOUS. TWO- STORE VE& BUILDINGS . 4 BAND SEPARATING TWO ROADWAY S ( ANT l-Nft A OUGHT * ) SHAPE 6 - SHAPES 1,2, 3,6 . 4. IN CKRTAIN PARTS Of THE CAPITOL THE HOfUtON WILL BE SHUT OFF BY GRCtN WALLS CTRCI WALLS) M, AND GRICN ROOMS WILL BC CREATED. THE ARRANGEMENT OF GREEN ROOMS mm w Hefty . r/; SECRETARIAT TTTT^ IAAAAAI OOMfl MO 124 LANDSCAPING CHANDIGARH CHANDIGARH CAPITOL TREE PLANTING AT THE CAPITOL MANY FORMS OP TUCKS ARC CONTEMPLATED I- MISTING CLEMENTS AT SITE. ISOLATED TREES (MANGOES OR OTHERS) OR IN GROUPS PIG.I. 2. THE PRIVATE GARDENS OP THE GOVERNOR . AN ORTHOGONAL DRAWING OP THE PATHS CONTAINS A GARDEN WITH TREES OF ALL TYPES COLOURS SHAPES AND HIQHTS AND PICTURESaUC ARRANGEMENTS FIG. 3. ALL THE VARIETIES ( SEAUTIFUL ) ALL COLOURS ALL SEASONS CSC of the Himalayan forests with their peace and silence. Kadamba groves with their silence and perfume remind us of the happy forests of Vrindavan where Krishna roamed with the milkmaids, and no doubt they will provide the glad- ness and freshness of the rainy season to the citizens of Chandigarh. Forests of yellow siris with their smooth, light yellow and barkless boles emit a strange golden light ; there is a warm and russet glow at their base, and a blue ethereal mist covers their top. The Capitol group of buildings which consists of the Governor's House, the High Court, the Legislative Assembly and the Secretariat is spread out in a 250-acre en- clave at the foot of the Sivalik Hills. Located at the head of the site which is gently sloping, it carries an air of detachment and dignity. For planting on the Capitol site, many forms of trees are contemplated. The existing trees, mostly mangoes, whether isolated or in groups, have been maintained. The Governor's private garden would contain a garden with trees of all types, colours, shapes and heights which would be arranged in a picturesque manner. All the varieties which have been selected are beautiful, and there would be colour in all the seasons. With the earth removed from the excavated ground from the Capitol site, artificial mountains will be created. These hillocks will create a play of forms with the buildings of the Capitol, and will be covered with evergreen trees of different types. In certain parts of the Capitol, the horizon will be shut off by green walls of trees, and green rooms would be created by planting trees in the form of circles, squares, and rectangles. Bioaesthetic planning is closely connected with town planning. Before the towns arose, there were groves of trees, meadows, moving horizons, hills, mountains, 125 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA ARTIFICIAL MOUNTAINS HA VI SEEN CREATED WITH IARTH REMOVED FROM EXCAVATED C HOUND POM PARKING AND CAR ROUTES. THESE HILLS WILL CREATE A PLAY OP FOAMS WITH THE ftUILMNCS OP THE CAPITOL AND WILL RE COVERED WITH EVCRGRCCN TREES OF DIFFERENT TVPES ARTIFICIAL MOUNTAINS NOTE: THE ARTIFICIAL HILLS SHOULD BE STEEPER- 3S*OR 41*. THF ASSEMBLY rv rivers and lakes. By building disorderly piles of houses, many beautiful views have been obscured. This has been avoided in Chandigarh by staggering the siting of houses in such a manner that the mountain view is not obscured even at the ground level. Trees have been carefully chosen with due regard to colour of flowers, beauty of foliage and shape of crown. In addition to utilitarian and aesthetic aspects, trees in city areas constitute an effective buffer against dust and noise, and also act as wind- breaks. Moreover, when planted properly they link up individual masses of build- ings in a harmonious whole, and enhance their architectural appeal by presenting a foil of texture, colour and form by way of contrasts. Chandigarh is one of the most carefully planted cities of the world. When the trees grow up, the residential areas will be brightened up by masses of blossoms. In the hot months of summer, heavy masses of dark green leaves will provide a refreshing shade. Under the shadow of the blue mountains of the Kasauli range, the great blocks of buildings stand shaded by the green walls of trees, the true friends of man. From the top of the buildings the vast horizon is seen providing a play of colours throughout the seasons. In the monsoon, which is the most pleasant season in Chandi- garh, clouds appear in all directions ; they are raining in the east, their dark masses are visible in the south, and the scarlet of the setting sun is tinging the horizon in the west. The green domes ofpipal and mango trees which have been retained provide a touch of the country. Thus, we find in Chandigarh that the town and the country are blended, the marriage of the tree and the building has taken place; the result is harmony, and the link between nature and man is established. 126 LANDSCAPING CHANDIGARH foliage and spread of root ystem . _ Growth Foliage S. Name of the tree Height Spread (slow or (thick or Character of leaves Root No. quick) light) structure A Deciduous trees I Large-sized trees 1 . Ailanthus excelsa 40'-50 Tall Quick Wghl Long leaves 3' long Large 2. Bombax malabaricum 40'-GO' ti Palmate, broad ii 3. Chorisia speciosa SO'^S' Medium spread ii Long-stalked leaves, t leaflets acute 4. Ficus infectoria 35'.50' Wide spread Thick Glabrous, coppery, 11 shining 5. Millingtonia hortensis 50'-60' Tall and Light Long leaves ii small spread 6. Albizzia procera 60'-80' Tall and >t Medium good spread II Medium-sited trees 1. Bassia latifolia SO'^' Compact Very slow Thick leaves appear in Medium whorls 2. Bignonia crispa 25'-30' Light Compound leaves ii 3. Cassia javanica 25'-30' Spreading Slow Feathery leaves i crown 4. Cassia nodosa 20'-30' > > ii Leaves compound, with t 6-12 pairs of leaflets 5. Delonix regia 25'-35' Large spread Quick it Long, bipinnatr, ii feathery 6. Erythrina indka 25'-35' Medium it Large, composed of 11 three broad leaflets 7. Lagerstroemia flos-reginae 20'-30' > ii i Q D 1* ilL * 20'-35' Spreading Thick Large, bipinnatc if o. reiiopnonon tnernte crown 9. SchMchera trijuga 30'-40' if it ii Paripinnate, leaflets i* opposite, very hand- some III Small-sized trees 1 . Bauhinia acwninata 20'-30' Medium Quick Light Leaves have cleft at Small the apex 2. Bauhinia variegata 20'-30' it ii Ix-avcs have cleft at ii the tip, alternate 3. Bauhinia triandra 20'-30' if ii i 4. /fata monosperma 20'-35' Irregular Slow Thick Large, trifoliate i 5. Cassia renigera 15'-20' Medium Quick Light Long leaves, 8-20 pairs ii of leaflets 6. Cassia fistula 25'-35' Large, compound 41 w uMirn yiwriMW 7. Cratatva rtligios a 25 / -30' Small Slow ii Leaves clustered If 8. Erythrina subcrosa 40'-50' Quick ii Leaves glabrous II 9. Jacaranda mimosarfolia 25'-35' Medium ii Fine feathery foliage l 10. MUUtiaovaltfolia 20 / -20' Small Slow > ft 11. Spathodia campamilata 25'-35' Quick ii Large / 4-9 pairs of 99 leaflets 127 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA S. Name of the tree No. Height Growth Spread (slow or quick) Foliage (thick or light) Character of leaves Root structure V-'EvCff fGCB VCC99 I Largt-siztd trtts 1. Colvillea racemosa 40'-50 / Spreading Quick Light Leaves alternate, Large crown 3' long 2. Enterolobium saman 60'-80' j> 99 Feathery foliage, 99 pinnate 3. Ficus retusa SO'-GO' Slow Thick Elliptic or obovatr apex 99 4. Polyalthia longifolia 40'-50 / Tall with Quick I-foht Lance-shaped, bright 99 downward and wavy branches , 5. Pterotpermum acerifolium 40'-50' Tall with Slow 99 Large, obovate 99 spreading branches 6. Sterculia alata SO'^S' Medium Quick it Small II Medium-rized trees 1. Azadirachta indica 30'-40' Medium Quick Light Long, pendent, Medium serrated 2. Casuarina equisftifolia 35'-45' Oval crown Feathery Cord-like 99 like conifer foliage 3. Chfofa fcona 40'-50' Medium Light Glabrous, 5-10 pairs of 99 leaflets 4. Eugenia jambolana SO'^' Dense crown Thick Large, smooth oval 99 5. E.fruticosa 30'-40' f 99 6. Grevillea robusta SO'^0' Columnar Slow 6'-4*, pinnate 99 7. Kigelia pinnata 5'-45' Medium 99 Leathery 99 8. Tamarindus indica 35'-40' Spreading Very slow Light Compound, with 10-12 9f crown pairs of leaflets III Small trees 1. Acacia awrieuliformis S^^' Columnar Medium Light Phyllodes glabrous Small 2. ^aiaa moniliformis 2CK-30' Very slow 99 99 3. Cabptyltum inophyttum 20'-25' 99 99 99 Elliptic 99 4. Cassia siamea 25'-35' Medium Thick 6"- 12* long, pinnate, ,1 5. Diospyros emhryopteris 25'-30' Spreading ,, 99 glabrous, shining, 99 oblong 6. DilUnia indica 3(y-40' 99 99 99 7. Guaicum officinale 30'-40' Rounded Slow M Dark green with 99 crown 2-3 pairs of leaflets 8. Lagerstroemia thorelli 20'-25' Medium Quick Light Alternate leaves, bright l green 9. Mesuaftrrea 20'-25' 99 99 99 2"-6' long, upper side 99 globose shining 10. Putraryiva roxburghii 25'-30' Columnar, Slow Thick Bright green 99 slightly spreading 11. Plimmaalba 2(X Low spread 99 Dark green, shining 99 12. Plumeria acuttfolia 2CK )* Smooth and narrow 99 13. Phyllanthus tmblica 25'-30' Medium Quick 99 Deep, but not 99 spreading 128 LANDSCAPING CHANDIGARH s. No. Name of the lice Height Spread Growth (slow or quick) Foliage (thick or light) Character of leaves Root structure 14. Thespesia populnea 25'-30' Umbrella-like Quick Thick Heart-shaped Small C Palms 1. Borassus Jlabellifcr 40'-60' Erect unbranchcd Slow Large, fan-shaped 2. Coeos nucifcra 80' Large, pinnate 3. Livistona chinensis 6' Kidney-shaped 5 across 4. Oreodoxa regia 50' Long, arched, with long leaflets 5. Phoenix daciylifera 30 / -40 / Long, arched 129 CHAPTER XVI THE WORLD FESTIVAL OF TREES IT has long been a tradition in many countries to celebrate annually a Tree or Forest Festival, the enthusiasm with which it is celebrated depending upon the degree of awareness of the people's need for forest resources, and where such re- sources are adequate, of the necessity of their protection and maintenance by a public whose sense of responsibility has not yet been fully awakened. In recent years, more nations have been joining the list of those celebrating tree festivals because of their growing awareness of the situation resulting from the destruction of their tree resources by irresponsible actions of the people and their eagerness to instil in the people the aesthetic, physical and economic value of trees. Countries which have long recognized that their main wealth is timber, and their very existence is dependent upon the maintenance of a protective forest cover, have not felt the same need as others for observing such celebrations. In Sweden, for example, where forests play such an important part in national economy, specific activities are confined to a 'Week of the Forest 5 . But in other countries, the 'Festival of Trees' is a much-planned celebration, in which a large section of the populace actively participates and such activities lead to the large-scale planting of saplings. The Governments of the States of the Commonwealth of Australia, have, for many years, recognized the value of a regular annual function aimed at inculcating in the minds of the young people a tree-consciousness and a sense of importance of trees and forests to the general life of the community. To this end, celebrations known as the Arbor Day have been organized by the State Departments of Educa- tion in the form of a tree-planting function at which, in the larger centres, leading citizens present relevant subjects to school children who are responsible for the planting of the trees and shrubs. Plantings are carried out in school plots or other areas especially set aside for the purpose, and, in some instances, the planting of trees alongside roads in the community is arranged, suitable trees and shrubs generally being made available by the State Forest Service. Owing to a vast diver- gence of climate and other conditions obtaining in various states and districts, the annual ceremony is held on different dates, the form of ceremony depending upon the size of the centre and the school, and other local aspects. In some States, various organizations and associations arrange tree-planting functions on similar lines, assisted by the Forest Services, which provide the needed publicity. Victoria has been observing an Arbor Day in her schools for the last forty years, and many beautifully planted school grounds throughout the State bear witness to its success. Each year the Education Department draws the attention of school 130 THE WORLD FESTIVAL OF TREES committees, teachers and pupils to the necessity of planting of and caring for trees. An official instruction to head teachers is published in the Education Gazette for April and May, and suitable articles, stories and poems are published in school magazines and educational periodicals. The usual programme followed in each school is that the morning session is devoted to special lessons relating to the beauty and importance of trees and forests, while the afternoon is given to actual planting activities. In many schools, the Day is a special social occasion when parents and friends of the school take part. Where the school grounds are fully planted, schools frequently participate in community planting projects sponsored by municipal authorities or such bodies as the Country Women's Association, or the Natural Resources Conservation League. In addition to the encouragement it gives to school ground and roadside ornamental planting, the Education Department has fostered a scheme of school endowment plantations by which schools are encouraged to establish their own community forests. These small forest plots, approximately 400 in number, vary in size from one acre to seventy acres. Many of these plantations are beginning to make an appreciable contribution to the timber resources of the State, but their principal value lies in the stimulation of pupil interest, and the provision of opportunities for community service, coupled with healthy and pleasant outdoor activity. In Western Australia, apart from the Arbor Day, the Annual Wild Life and Flower Show has found popular support. This has now become one of the most popular annual floral events in Perth. Organized by the Perth Naturalists' Club, it is supported by several public bodies, including the Forests Department. The Show is held in September when most of the native wild flowers, shrubs and trees are in flower. Since the last few years, a Festival of Flowers is also being celebrated with great success. Organized by the Silver Chain Nursing Association, the Festival is celebrated by decorating every building and statues etc. in Perth proper with flowers. The display of native flowering shrubs and Eucalyptus does much to stimu- late the demand for trees and plants of many species. As a practical guide to farmers, arboreta have been established in the South-west as well as in the Wheat Belt, and the establishment of more of these at intervals throughout the country districts is contemplated to add to the interest of farmers in tree-planting. In Canada, several provincial governments sponsor Arbor Days which are chiefly celebrated by way of tree-planting by school children, often on school pro- perty, and, in addition, a nation-wide Forest Conservation Week is observed. During the Week, the importance of better management of farm woodlots and of the protec- tion of forests against fire is particularly stressed. The Testival of the Tree* is celebrated along with national 'Festival of the Race* in Colombia. The 'Festival of the Tree* is organized by the Forestry Service in collaboration with, among others, the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of 135 14 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA National Education, the departmental authorities, the Society of the Friends of the Tree and the militia units. Special features of the Festival include the flood- lighting of the Tree of Peace' and the singing of tree hymns by school children. The Festival was celebrated in 1951 not only by symbolical means in most of the pro- vincial and departmental capitals, but by the planting of half a million trees around schools, colleges and barracks and in parks and avenues. Heralded by press publicity and radio broadcasts, the German Federal Republic celebrated a national festival of trees for the first time in 1952. The occasion was organized by the Schutzemeinschaft deutscher Wald in collaboration with the forest administration, schools and local organizations. Groups of trees were planted in all communities by local authorities and by school children, and lectures were delivered by foresters and nature lovers. Haiti has been celebrating the 'Festival of the Tree 5 since 1938. The celebration has aroused such enthusiasm throughout the land and is carried out in such an agreeable atmosphere that during the last five years a 'Week of the Tree' has been organized for school children. During the five days before the date set for the Tree Festival, a series of conferences and talks is given in all the schools, at the end of which a symbolic tree is planted. A typical ceremony consists in the school children and their teachers assembling at the site chosen for reforestation. Usually, this locality is a bare hill in the neighbourhood, a public square insufficiently set with shade trees, a recreation ground of an important educational institution or any other place suitably close to the commune. The seedlings to be planted and the tools neces- sary, especially the spades, are placed in the centre of the area selected. When the invitees have arrived, the children sing the Haiti National Anthem, and raising their right hand shoulder-high, take the Oath of the Tree. The parish priest is then invited to bless the trees, and especially the finest specimen which will have been selected as the symbolic 'tree of the year' to be planted by the highest authority present. Then follow the school children under the guidance of their teachers and the students from the National School of Agriculture, who complete the planting to be done. Throughout the ceremony, a commentary is broadcast through loudspeakers explaining the importance and the extent of the ceremony, and sometimes school bands play selected tunes. The active participation of the children attending primary and secondary schools of the communes in the planting operations is assured through legislation. In Israel, the Jewish calendar has set aside the fifteenth day of the month of Shevat (falling approximately in the second half of January) as the Festival of Trees since time immemorial. Traditionally, the Festival is called 'the New Year's Day of the Trees' and in the popular tradition it is assumed on this day that the sap begins to rise, then beginning the annual cycle of vitality. For many centuries the day was kept primarily as a minor religious festival, but with the beginning of the Zionist 136 THE WORLD FESTIVAL OF TREES movement, the character of the Festival was modified to include the character of the Arbor Day. The earlier Jewish settlers in Israel recognized the great necessity of tree- planting in the bare country they came to, as well as the need to implant in the public mind the importance of forests and their preservation as a most valuable national asset. In the present form of the festival, the Day is celebrated in schools and throughout the country as well as in the youth movements by devoting the Day to explanations of the significance of trees and forests. Songs and poems relating to the subject are taught and appropriate popular legends are retold. The actual tree- planting ceremony is the climax of the celebration. Classes of school children go into the countryside to sites reserved for afforestation. Each child is ceremoniously handed a sapling; the saplings are then planted by all children at the same time, and the actual planting is followed by a general celebration. Similar planting cere- monies are organized by various organizations and groups of adults who wish to commemorate some event or person, or generally to associate themselves with affores- tation. Such groups are very often constituted not only by people in Israel, but also by Jewish communities throughout the world who wish to express their attachment to Israel this way. Forests or groves are named either for the sponsoring group or for a personality or event they wish to commemorate. The actual planting ceremony is attended by some prominent personality who inaugurates the forest by planting the first tree. The celebration of the Festival of Trees is organized by the Jewish National Fund, a public body responsible, inter alia, for a great deal of the afforesta- tion work being done in Israel. In Japan, the national tree festival is celebrated annually for a week in April, known as the 'Greening Week 5 , corresponding to the Arbor Day observed in the U.S.A. and South Australia. The 'Greening' campaign in Japan is sponsored by the National Land Greening Promotion Committee, composed of the Speaker of the House and of the Representatives (Chairman) and some members of the same House and the House of Councillors and representatives of various other organizations. The 'Greening Week' comprises the Street Greening Day, the Homestead Greening Day, the Mountain Greening Day, the Traffic Greening Day, the Schools Greening Day and the Green Tree Protection Day. In 1952, the Emperor and Empress planted trees in person on the Day observed in Tokyo. A National 'land greening' mass meeting was held on the occasion of the national tree festival, at which the formal official commendation of persons who had rendered distinguished services in the 'greening' programme, prize-winning posters, children's songs and popular songs in the contest held under the auspices of the Committee. Special trains were run to the places where the Tree Festival was celebrated for the convenience of the large attendance. National 'land greening* campaign posters made by the pupils of schools throughout the country were placed on public exhibition. A campaign for 137 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA 'Green Feather' contributions was pushed forward throughout the country under the auspices of the respective 'perfectural greening* promotion committees, obtaining an active co-operation from the pupils of schools as well as volunteers. The contri- butions thus collected were allocated to the creation of the school forest, river-head forest, street forest and 'school site greening 9 as well as to the dissemination of the ideas of the aesthetic, physical and economic value of the trees. In commemoration of the coming into force of the Japanese Peace Treaty, the creation of public forests, school forests, and the youth club forests was encouraged, and programmes were pushed forward for 'greening* the forest lands, cities, school sites, workshops, home- steads and transport sites. A new brand of cigarettes was put on sale in commemora- tion of the 'greening* campaign. Posters for the 'greening* campaign were widely circulated and gramophone records of popular children's songs about the campaign were issued. Since the 'Greening Week* was inaugurated in Japan in 1948, land covering 10,000 hectares has been reinforced every year by school pupils. A total of a million school children took part in the 'greening* campaign. To encourage the campaign, the Minister of Agriculture and Forestry and the Minister of Education awarded prizes to the best schools in the school forest contest. Sweden as a country has been'well aware for so long a time of the importance of forestry and of the wood product industries to the country. Yet, it celebrates a 'The Week of the Forest* in Stockholm every year, when a great number of associations in the field of forestry have their annual meetings and discussions. The Press gives good publicity to these meetings, so that the people are kept reminded of their obligations to the tree forest. Swedish schools make an important effort in this respect by way of education and by the planting of trees. In the United States of America, the observance of Arbor Day has become established in one form or another in all the States. It was first observed in Nebraska in 1857, and grew out of conditions peculiar to the Great Plains. Tree planting on the Day is largely done by school children, in which is combined pleasure, utility and instruction. Great emphasis is laid on educating the young people in the conser- vation of trees and forests, and the observance of the Day encompasses such diverse objectives as the establishment of memorial trees or groves, the enlargement of community forests, the beautification of streets and highways, and even the growing of Christmas trees. Arbor Days have contributed a great deal to the goal of mass consciousness of the aesthetic, physical and economic value of trees. 138 CHAPTER XVII THE FESTIVAL OF TREES IN INDIA IT is not the lack of aesthetic sense and respect for trees on the part of the people alone that have led to the thinning of our forests and degradation of our woodlands. A growing population gave rise to land hunger, and man, his plough and the cow and goat invariably had their incursions into the natural tree wealth. Even marginal lands and community wood and grazing lots were not spared, even if it was only for clearing such lands of the trees, taking up an unprofitable agriculture on them for a short time and abandoning them soon to their fate. An undecided and halting national forest policy aided the degeneration of national and state forest** further, and the inevitable followed. Soil erosion, for decades confined to patches here and there, assumed dangerous proportions. With the denudation of village forests, villagers were soon in search of alternative sources of fuel for the homes, and began using cow-dung at the cost of impoverishment of their soils and consequent lower yields. This led to further incursions into the tree reserves. Nature's balance had been disturbed, and a costly lesson was being learnt. The rural landscape in many states became increasingly treeless and barren. It looked as if the great drama of the disappearance of the fertile red soil of China would be enacted in this country. What was required was a national awakening to the necessity of planting trees, and attempts at tree rehabilitation on a national scale. The beginning came in July 1947, when a very successful Tree Planting Week was celebrated in Delhi State. The Week was heralded by the planting of kachnar saplings by the stalwarts of the Nation, led by the Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, at a picturesque ceremony in the historic Purana Quila. Addressing the people, Nehru said, "I think there should be a law about cutting down trees. A person who cuts down an aged tree should be required to plant another, and thus compensate the loss." "A growing tree," he exclaimed, "is the living symbol of a progressive nation." Commenting on the Delhi Tree Planting Week in one of his post-prayer speeches, Mahatma Gandhi said, "The official who originated the idea of tree- planting did not do it for fancy, nor was it meant for the moneyed men. It began with them so that others would copy them and thus add to the wealth and rainfall of India." The main objective of celebrating the Tree Planting Week was to focus the attention of the people on the national importance of planting trees and to make them 139 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA tree-conscious. This objective was fulfilled to a great extent. There was a scramble for seedlings at the nurseries, and in many states the Week was celebrated on an organized basis. But to K. M. Munshi goes the credit for raising the tree to the level of importance it should have in our national economy. As Minister of Food and Agri- culture of the Indian Union, he stressed the need for including the principle of sustained and regulated yield in the forest policy of new India. At the same time, he took up the work of tree-planting on a national scale by initiating a national tree-planting movement. He reminded the people of what our great ancestors thought and said about forests and trees. "Trees," he said, "have a rightful place in the general economy of every country. The forest is not a handmaid of agricul- ture. Our forests are inexhaustible reserves for providing subsistence to our growing millions; for, trees mean water, water means bread and bread is life." Under his inspiring guidance the first National Festival of Trees or Vana Mahotsava was observed in 1950. Never before was such a festival held on so vast alcaleTTn July that year and in the following months, lakhs of seeds and seed- lings were planted all over the country. Apart from the results achieved, what was much more important was that the people of India became tree-conscious, and the realization came to them that even trees had a place in the life and economy of the country. The Festival is not confined to cities and towns alone, where everyone knows what need there is for trees to help reduce the monotony of the drab brick and cement. It has seeped into the villages, bringing home to the villagers that trees mean better crops, better living conditions, better cattle and more beautiful villages. The Vana Mahotsava has achieved much during the years the Festival has been observed. Yet, some more efforts have to go in before the gains are consolidated and further progress achieved. The public mind needs to be further educated on what stands behind the mere ritual of planting trees. The Vana Mahotsava is not a festival, as other religious festivals are, lasting for a day or two and thereafter developing into a rite devoid of meaning or importance. It is a symbol of an unending movement towards verdure. The planting of a tree is merely the starting point of a tacit undertaking to do all that is necessary to provide it with appropriate living conditions and protect it against damage or destruction by man or beast. There are very many still to appreciate the true significance of the Tree Planting Festival. Every effective method should be made use of for disseminating information on the Festival to the general public. It must be told of the sacred significance of the one-time forests that clothed the land and cradled the Aryan civilization. It must be told of how the law of diminishing returns is operating in the field and the meadow because of an ill-planned and ill-balanced rural economy that has 140 FESTIVAL OF TREES IN INDIA allowed cultivation to engulf grazing ground and tree land. It must be told of the value of the forest and the tree in national economy, and their importance in controlling erosion and mitigating floods, and in providing shade and shelter against the tropical sun and desiccating winds. It must be told of the need for the 'village beautiful'. Then again, the ceremonial should be given a practical turn. Large-scale nurseries should spring up to provide a variety of planting material and sufficient quantity of it to meet a large demand. All available resources should be canalized towards this end, and all those who want to plant should easily and with very little cost get what they need to plant. People should be properly guided on the technique of planting and after-care of trees, including protection against adverse elements. The guidance will have to be sustained, especially in the initial stages. In fact, this aspect of forestry Extension can ably be tackled by our Community Development Projects and the National Extension Service, in addition to the other voluntary social services. Incentives are already provided through awards of shields, cups, sanads and certificates. These are for achievements on a national scale, but the institution of more of these on a state and smaller unit basis will help foster a greater spirit of healthy competition in the field. Everyone can help, including women and children. Active participation of children in tree-planting festivities will help build a future generation of tree-lovers. For this reason, a special course on planting of trees should be instituted in the curri- culum in all schools. Teachers and students should plant trees with their own hand, thus instilling in all minds the dignity of labour. Spades and hoes, and where necessary, irrigation appliances should be provided free of cost to all schools. Special prizes should be awarded for good work done. In villages, rural communities should be persuaded to plant not occasional indi- vidual trees, but compact blocks of them wherever land is available. Our villages need windbreaks and shelter-belts. Such work deserves to be intitiated during the Festival. The tree-planting plan needs to be flexible enough to accommodate the tree- needs of the community. The plan need not be confined to the planting of flowering trees alone, though this should form an integral part of it. Planting of timber trees like tamarind, nim, bakain, shisham, casuarina and babul on waste land and fruit trees like lemons, sweet lemons, papaya, amlas, kathal, mangoes and bananas in gardens and house compounds and back yards, should also form a part of the programme. Griessen mentions the existence of a 'Society of the Friends of the Trees' in Tunis in North Africa, whose function is to bring together all people who love trees and are interested in encouraging their planting. He states that packets of seeds of 141 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA selected trees are supplied each year to the students of schools in Tunis, which are sown during a selected week. We need to organize such a society, so that all those interested in the propagation of beautiful trees are brought together. Such a society ought to be organized under the auspices of the National Extension Service, and can play a big part in popularizing tree culture and developing a love for trees throughout the country. The Tree Planting Festival is now being celebrated on a progressively bigger scale each year. If public enthusiasm in this direction is kept up, every nook and corner of the country before long will brighten up with clear strong gold and scarlet, the rich purple and blue and waxen white of numerous flowering trees, so that they may tell the younger generation the message of a minor nineteenth century poet : 'He that plantcth a tree is the servant of God He provideth a kindness for many generations And faces that he hath not seen shall bless him." The Festival of trees is being at present celebrated in different countries under diverse names. The name is immaterial, so long as its aims are fulfilled. The stage is also now passed when the festival, instead of being confined to individual countries, is made an international occasion in which the tree as a symbol of enduring peace is the central theme of the celebrations. It is befitting that the younger genera- tion in every country learns to foster an international feeling of friendship and world peace. The exchange of indigenous tree seeds between the school children of one country and another, the establishment of forests or 'Groves of Nations' would not only be of high educational value, but would be of some considerable community interest and an effective means of promoting goodwill among nations. Many nations have adopted trees, shrubs and flowers as national emblems. The supply of seeds of such plants to schools in other countries would provide for a symbolic manifestation of friendship and co-operation. Sponsoring such programmes as International Friend- ship Groves, suggesting friendship and co-operation among nations in planting trees for public purposes, will have a definite impact on the adult mind, since forest problems are not confined to the boundaries of one country but are spread over a larger region consisting of a number of countries. The international nature of the Festival will provide a common platform for exchange of forestry knowledge, thus bringing about a better understanding between one nation and another. 142 CHAPTER XVIII TREES AND THEIR HABITAT IOAESTHETIC planting of ornamental trees has close relationship with plant iJ ecology, and the study of ecology is essential for the bioaesthetic planner. The texture of the soil, amount of rainfall, presence of rivers, canals and tanks, and the temperature play an important role in the growth of trees. Plants must be placed in habitats which approximate to their natural surroundings. There are certain trees which flourish only in moist districts with a rainfall of over 40 inches, or along the banks of rivers, canals and tanks. In districts with a lesser rainfall, these 'trees can grow with artificial irrigation, but they never acquire the same stature as in moist areas. This does not mean that such trees should not be grown in dry areas at all. If means of irrigation are available, these may be grown. A dwarfing in size takes place when trees which are inhabitants of moist districts are grown in dry areas, and this is an advantage when considered from the point of view of the owner of a house with a small compound. Lagerstroemia fos-reginae, which is a big tree in Bengal, is a medium-sized tree in the Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. Trees suitable for growing under various conditions are given below. ORNAMENTAL FLOWERING TREES SUITED TO MOIST LOCALITIES Name of Tree Country of origin Time of flowering Colour of flowers Amherstia nobilis Burma March Salmon pink Bauhinia variegata India March-April White, pink or mauve B. purpurta West Indies February-March Red Brownta coccinea do. do. do. B. ariza do. do. Rose pink Cassia marginata Ceylon May-June Terra cotta rrd C. javanica Java do. Rose pink C. nodosa India & Malaya do. Bright pink Colvillea racemosa Madagascar October-November Scarlet orange Guaicum officinal* West Indies March-April Blue Lagerstroemia flos- reginae India April-May and July- Mauve purple September L. thorelli do. do. White mauve MilUtia auriculata Burma March Purple mauve Poinciana regia Madagascar April-June Scarlet orange Peltophonunferrugineum Malaya October Golden yellow Pithecolobium saman Brazil March and September Pale pink Saraca indica India February-March Scarlet orange Solanum wrightii Brazil All the year round; parti- White and purple blue cularly in October Spathodea campanulata Tropical Africa February-March Orange red Sterculia coloraia India April-May do. 143 15 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA ORNAMENTAL FLOWERING TREES SUITED TO DRY LOCALITIES Name of Tree Country of origin Time of flowering Colour of flower* Acacia auriculiformis Australia October-November Yellow Buteafrondosa India March Vermilion Cassia fistula Cordia sebestena India India April-May All the year round; parti- Yellow Scarlet orange cularly January to March Cocklospermum gossypium Erythrina indica India India March February-March Yellow Scarlet red E. Blacken Jacaranda mimosaefolia India Brazil April March-April Cinnamon red Violet blue Melia azadirachta Plumeria alba India South America April March-April, July- Lilac White October Pongamia glabra India May Mauve Spathodea nilotica Tecomella undulata Thespcsia populnea Tropical Africa India India February-March March-April All the year round; parti- Orange crimson Orange yellow Yellow and reddish cularly in October and purple November DROUGHT-RESISTANT TREES SUITABLE FOR ARID REGIONS Albi&ia Ubbek Buteafrondosa Cassia fistula Casuarina equisetifolia Eucalyptus citriodora Mclia azedarach Morus indica Phoenix dactylifcra Prosopis jul\flora Salvadora persica Siris. A deciduous, spreading, fast growing tree, 40 to 60 feet high. Thrives in the Punjab, Rajasthan and South Iran. Moderately drought-resistant. . Dhak or palas. A medium-sized deciduous tree, gets covered in March with scarlet flowers. Extremely resistant to drought. Amaltas. A medium-sized deciduous tree, 30 to 40 feet high. Gets covered with golden yellow flowers in May. Beef-wood tree. A tall evergreen tree; 50 to 60 feet high, with long needle-like leaves; native of Australia, grows well on dry sandy soil. Thrives in the Punjab. Safeda. A tall evergreen tree; thrives in the Punjab and Iraq. Persian lilac, dake, bakain. Deciduous tree, 20 to 40 feet high; purple panicles in March; flourishes in the Punjab. Mulberry, toot. Thrives in the Punjab, Syria and South Iran. Date-palm, khajoor. Flourishes in West Pakistan, Iran and Iraq. Mnsquite bean. A deciduous tree, medium sized, graceful feathery foliage; quick-grow- ing, extremely drought-resistant, a native of Mexico. Pilu> Mustard Tree of Scripture. A small evergreen tree with small oval-fleshy leaves; extremely drought-resistant; flourishes in West Pakistan and Iran. Buteafrondosa Bassia latifolia Eucalyptus citriodora Azadirachta indica Phoenix dactylifcra Phyllanthus cmblica Psidium guava Tamarix articulata Thispena populnea SALT-RESISTANT TREES Dhak, polos. Extremely salt-resistant; in fact, the only tree which grows successfully on saline, usar and kalar soils. Mahua. Moderately salt-resistant, can grow on slightly saline soil; yields good timber and edible fruit which can be fermented into liquor. Moderately salt-resistant. Grows even in Iraq. Aim. Moderately salt-resistant. Date-palm, khajoor. Flourishes in brackish soil. Amla. Flourishes in slightly saline soil. Guava. Can easily grow in mild usar. Farash. Thrives in arid saline soil. Bhtndi. Thrives in the back-waters of Kerala. 144 TREES AND THEIR HABITAT TREES FOR SWAMPS AND MARSHY AREAS Eucalyptus rostrata Has a high rate of transpiration and is useful for draining marshy areas. Salix tetrasperma Willow. Ideal for waterside planting. S. babylonica Like the willow, highly suited to waterside planting. Tamarix sp. Farash. Can stand water-logging. Plantains Kela. Its broad leaves have a high rate of transpiration. NECTAR-YIELDING TREES Bauhinia purpurea Bottle brush (Callistemon lanceolalum) Horse chestnut (Aesculus indica) Jaman (Eugenia jambolana) Kachnar (Bauhinia variegatd) Nim (Azadirachta indica) Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo) Soapnut (Sapindus) Tun (Cedrela tuna) Barna (Crataeva rcligiosa) It is seen from the above that the majority of the trees listed as suited to moist areas are natives of tropical countries with heavy rainfall and high humidity. On the other hand, among those shown suitable for dry areas are trees which can stand shortage of water. These are trees with special structural modifications which enable them to cope up with dry conditions, heat and shortage of water. Some of these are indigenous to India, and thus are ideally suited to our dry tracts where irrigation facilities are poor and hot dry winds blow. They can tolerate arid conditions, but it does not mean that they love drought and heat. They can as well grow in the moist districts and thrive very well indeed. However, on the banks of a canal, a river or a tank, such moisture-loving trees as Lagerstroemia flos-reginae, Salix tetrasperma (willow) and Sapium sebiferum (makhari) should be planted. The last one, which is also known as the Chinese Tallow Tree, is a medium-sized deciduous tree whose leaves display lovely autumn tints and is used for stream training in Kangra district of the Punjab. Very few trees can grow in marshy water-logged areas. Eucalyptus rostrata has proved a success in water-logged areas near the Upper Jhelum canal in West Pakistan. Willows and tamarix are also suitable for such areas. Where adequate protection against animals is available, the banana may also be tried. These trees can also be used for draining puddles which form near wells in our villages. These puddles should be enclosed with brick-walls to protect the young trees from cattle, and planted with the trees mentioned above. Where soakage pits have failed to drain the water, these trees may succeed. The soil plays a very important role in the life of trees. A high and well-drained soil of mixed sand and clay is ideal for the growth of trees. Water-logged, low-lying 145 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA areas produce stunted growth. There are certain trees which can flourish in poor sandy soils. These are mostly members of the family Leguminosae whose roots harbour nitrifying bacteria in tubercles which fix atmospheric nitrogen and make it available to the tree. Then there are trees which can cope with alkaline soil, such as Butea frondosa, the common dhak. In fact, trees serve as a valuable index of the type of soil on which they grow. Further, there are trees which can grow on dry rocky areas with minimum of soil, such as Cochlospermum gossypium, Cassia fistula, Prosopis juliflora and Plumerias. These trees are ideal for covering arid hills such as those found in Central India and Rajasthan. Animals, particularly goats, are the chief enemies of young trees. Some trees like Cassia fistula contain chemicals deterrent to animals in their sap. Goats, cows and buffaloes will not touch the leaves of amaltas, which have a purgative action on their digestive organs. Hence amaltas is well-suited for planting waste land which cannot be protected from grazing animals. The Frost Line, described as an imaginary line which passes through the districts below which frosts never occur, extends roughly from the sub-Himalayan districts of Uttar Pradesh to the eastern districts of the Punjab. The significance of this line lies in the fact that majority of the denizens of the equatorial and monsoon forests are unable to flourish in the areas above this line. Given sufficient protection in winter, they may grow in the area, but they will not be able to reproduce themselves in areas where frost occurs. This explains why Colvillea racemosa produces so few seeds even in Uttar Pradesh. Of the trees listed as suitable for moist localities, there are 12 trees which are natives of tropical countries like Africa, Madagascar, Java, West Indies, Malaya and Burma. These trees cannot be satisfactorily grown in the Punjab, Kashmir and the Himalayan zone. In this matter, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Bengal, Madras and Bombay are more fortunate, inasmuch as the choice of trees available for planting is larger as compared with the northern area above the Frost Line. In these areas only indigenous trees which are adapted to our climate are indicated. 146 TREES AND THEIR HABITAT I 5 S S S 2 6 6 o o <=> 147 CHAPTER XIX PLANTING TREES AND THEIR CARE TN North India, we have a typical woodland climate which is favourable to the JL growth of trees. In wet districts with rainfall over 40 inches per annum and in the comparatively drier districts where irrigation facilities in the form of canals are available, a sapling grows into a fairly big tree in about six years. Most ornamental flowering trees produce flowers after a growth of four to five years. There is advantage in planting saplings one to two years old rather than raising trees from seed, espe- cially in bare places where shade is quickly desired and a gain of one or two years' growth is of great value. Saplings over two years old are undesirable, as they take a long time to recover, especially when they are pot-grown with cramped roots. Sites for pits should be planned and located beforehand, preferably three to four months before planting. There is a tendency to plant too many trees, as from the size of saplings people often fail to realize their eventual growth and the space they will occupy when mature. Dwarf trees should be grown 15 to 20 feet apart, and larger trees when planted in an avenue or a clump should be at least 30 feet apart. Pits at least four feet deep and four feet in diameter should be dug at the sites selected in the month of March. The soil should be exposed to the sun during April and May, and in early June mixed thoroughly with old farmyard manure or compost in the ratio of 5 : 1. The pit should be filled up with the mixture to the ground level. Fresh or raw manure is not desirable as it is a standing invitation to white ants. Where the soil is unsuitable for the growth of plants as in usar and bhur areas, it should be discarded and good soil from some other locality used for filling the pits. When the soil in the pits has subsided after the first two or three showers the pits are ready for receiving the saplings. The best time for planting trees is in January and February and in the monsoon months from July to September. Where irrigation facilities are available, winter is the best time for planting deciduous trees. During winter, they are in a dormant condition and are less likely to suffer damage when dug up. For evergreen and semi-deciduous trees, the rainy season is the best time for planting. Where irrigation facilities are available, it is preferable to plant trees in the last week of February, as the trees thus planted will be benefited by the spring growth and will be securely established by the time the rains come. In places where there are no irrigation facilities or the water supply is inadequate, planting should be done towards the end of July. If trees are planted in the month of February, the best time for planting is in the evenings. During monsoons, the planting should be done on a rainy or cloudy day. 148 PLANTING TREES AND THEIR CARE When removing the plant from the pot, the ball of earth round the roots should not be removed or broken. The roots should be loosened and straightened. Injured portions of the roots and branches should be cut off. The root-collar should be just under ground level and care should be taken to secure the same position for the sapling in the pit. It is injurious to plant too deep by burying the stem under ground. Make a hole in the pit sufficiently deep to receive the roots of the sapling. Place the plant in an erect position in the hole thus made and pack the soil tight round the plant. After planting, give it a thorough drenching. These precautions are necessary for the successful growth of the saplings, and where these are not observed, the transplants mostly die or remain stunted. The practice of planting more than one sapling in a single hole in the hope that at least one of them will strike root is wasteful and undesirable. Saplings of one to two years' growth get established in the pits in a few days. If there are any casualties, they should be replaced without much delay. Grass has a very harmful effect, particularly on young trees and the deciduous species suffer more than the evergreens. Fruit trees are practically suffocated by the growth of grass and their fruits become small and hard. During the monsoon rains, the volume of carbon dioxide in the spaces of soil under grass increases about five-fold as compared with the soil air of cultivated land. Carbon dioxide dissolves in the water film and the formation of humus, nitrification and mycorrhizal relationship are all affected. As compared with fruit trees like guava, litchi and loquat, forest trees like dhaky tamarind and jarul are able to compete with grasses and weeds on account of the fact that their deep root system admits of growth during the dry season when the grass is dormant and the active roots of the surface system are resistant to a poor soil aeration and can successfully compete with grass for oxygen and minerals. Never- theless, for a healthy growth of the plants, a thorough weeding and hoeing are of much greater importance than irrigation. As soon as the soil is dry, the pits should be dug up with a hoe. Aeration of the roots stimulates growth and the removal of weeds, which rob the transplants of nutritive material, will naturally be beneficial. The entire diameter of the pits should be kept free from weeds. Do not dig wet soil. It is more likely to prove harmful and the churning of pasty liquid mud does not serve any useful purpose. Most of our trees have two growing periods, the spring months of March and April and again the monsoon months of July to September. Where irrigation facilities are available, it is desirable to plant trees in February after the end of the cold weather. Young plants should be v/atered continuously from March onwards, and particularly in the dry months of April, May and June, there should be at least five to six waterings a month. Each watering should be copious, so that water may reach the roots. Instead of watering with a water can, the trees should be irrigated by flow through a channel and the pits should be filled to the brim. Grindal recom- 149 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA mends the vertical insertion of earthenware flower-pots in the pits and pouring of water in these. Where watering is done by hand, this is a good method and ensures against superficial watering by the gardeners. Light surface sprinkling, even if repeated every alternate day, is actually harmful to the trees, for such superficial waterings tend to keep the roots of the tree nearabout the soil surface, and since the water cannot reach the subsoil, it results in slow and weak growth. On the other hand, if the watering is more thorough, the roots burrow deep down, thus resulting in a healthy growth of the tree. In the period between the waterings, the soil in the pits should be thoroughly hoed. The working of soil not only provides oxygen for the respiration of the roots, but also conserves moisture. Where irrigation facilities are not available or are inadequate, the trees should not be irrigated in the month of March. Irrigation promotes the growth of new leaves and the rate of transpiration increases. If irrigation facilities are not available later on, the saplings are damaged by excessive transpiration. In such circumstances, it is best not to irrigate the plants, but leave them to their own resources. In the second year, if the plant develops two or more shoots, it is better to retain only one healthy shoot and to remove the subsidiary ones. Pruning should be done with a pruning knife or saw, and to prevent infection, the open wounds should be tarred. As the tree grows, the lower branches should be cut out and inter- lacing branches in the crown should be removed to keep the frame clear. Staking in the early stages is also necessary, as it helps the tree to develop a straight trunk. Straight and stout branches of trees or bamboo poles can be used as stakes. The sapling should be tied with plantain-fibre with the stake, and it is desirable to insert a small pad of old cloth between the plant and the stake. Strings or wire should on no account be used, as they injure the bark. Nails also should not be driven into the stem, as in some cases they even kill the tree and provide an open door for the attack of fungi. When the stakes have served their purpose, they should be removed. The protection of young trees in the compound of a house is no great problem. But, in public parks and on the roadside it is a serious task. The main enemies of young trees are goats, cattle, monkeys and mischievous boys. The best solution is to provide tree-guards of bricks limed or cemented at the top, so that the bricks are not stolen. Tree-guards of bricks are suitable for public parks, town roads and platforms of railway stations. Along the roads in the countryside, however, tree-guards of bricks are expensive and are a standing temptation to villagers and cartmen who remove bricks for making chulahs for cooking their meals. In such cases, a mud structure affords the cheapest and best protection. A ditch around a mud structure serves as a useful barrier against cows and buffaloes but it is also necessary to place thorns on the mud-walls to ward off monkeys, boys and goats. The pruning of some fruit trees is essential to keep their crowns in good shape, especially in the compounds of houses where the space available for the expansion 150 PLANTING TREES AND THEIR CARE of their crowns is limited. However, pruning should not be indulged in for its own sake. Every tree has its natural crown which is usually symmetrical and the necessity of pruning ornamental trees very rarely arises. But pruning is a necessity in apples, pears, and other deciduous fruit trees. Many of the trees like amaltas, nim y and putranjiva can stand quite drastic pruning, and in some cases large growing trees can be headed back at 15 to 20 feet. In the case of quick-growing trees like jacarandas and gul mohurs it is more desirable to remove the tree altogether after 20 years and to plant afresh. Dead or diseased branches should always be sawn off. Training of trees is also essential from the age of two to three years. By properly bending and tying young trees, beautiful structures result, and gloriettas and gate- ways of amaltas can be made and bottle brush trees can be bent over tanks like weeping willows. Even trees with crooked branches like Cassia nodosa can be com- pelled to form a straight stem in a house with a limited space, if at the commence- ment the branches are thinned out, and the main stem is staked. The development of an adequate number of nurseries is an essential prelimi- nary step in the planning of the growing of ornamental, fruit and shade trees. At present the number of nurseries is very inadequate, and a big programme of expan- sion with more staffshould be undertaken and definite quotas should be fixed for each nursery so that sloth and indifference on the part of individuals may not stand in the way. There are nurseries at Delhi, Saharanpur, Lucknow, Allahabad and Agra connected with the Government gardens where a certain number of saplings of ornamental trees is grown. Considering the huge number required to meet the national needs, these nurseries are too small. The superintendents of these gardens complain that there is very little demand for ornamental trees, and hence their small nurseries. At present this is understandable, for very few people have knowledge of the wealth of ornamental trees which we possess in this country, and we see the pitiable spectacle ofjamuns, mahua and chilbil plantations in the compounds of houses in bungalows maintained by the Public Works Department and other public places. Demand will be created by properly organized propaganda, and by diffusing know- ledge about the selected ornamental trees in schools and colleges. When the average man is in need of a tree for planting, usually he gets hold of the nearest available, irrespective of the fact whether it is a nim or gul mohur. If he is advised as to what he should plant and at the same time is provided with the plants at a moderate price, he will certainly show discrimination. There is need for expansion of nurseries in our State Capitals, and at the same time nurseries should also be developed at the headquarter towns of all districts in gardens owned by the Municipal and District Boards, and in the compounds of bungalows belonging to the Public Works and Canal Departments. The nurseries of District Board and Municipal Board gardens should specialize in ornamental and fruit trees and those of the Public Works Department and canal bungalows in 151 16 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA ornamental, shade and fruit trees ornamental trees for the compounds of bungalows, shade trees for roadside avenues, and fruit trees for canal roads. M. D. Chaturvedi, who may be regarded as one of the pioneers of bioaesthetic planning in this country has given very helpful hints about raising nurseries in his pamphlet Roadside Avenues. It is very necessary that the inspecting officers should also know how to raise a successful nursery, so that this important work is not left to the whims of gardeners. I cannot do better than reproduce Chaturvcdi's very helpful instructions on the planting of avenue trees from his pamphlet. Site for Nursery. Nurseries should be raised on the best available soil. Well- drained deep sandy loams are best suited for plant growth. Heavy clays should be avoided as far as possible. Posts for the erection of shades to protect young seedlings from frost and desiccating sun should be permanently fixed around nursery beds. Manuring. Thorough soil-working and an occasional dose of organic manure like cow-dung and vegetable litter will result in good sturdy plants capable of standing transplanting shock with a minimum wastage. Nursery beds should be about five feet wide permitting the gardener to reach the middle from either side, and of any convenient length. A convenient size is 5 feet by 25 feet to hold 500 plants, six inches apart. The long side of beds should run east-west for convenience of shading, if necessary. Sowing of seeds. Seeds should be sown six inches apart and just covered with fine soil. Nurseries should be dead level, otherwise seeds sown will tend to wash out on the lower end. Beds are to be carefully irrigated in the mornings in preference to evenings, because photosynthetic activity is at its highest at noon. The soil should be lightly worked after each irrigation. Weeding. Nursery beds should be kept scrupulously clean of weeds, and the soil well worked up. It is not sufficiently realized that good weeding and soil aeration are as important as irrigation. The tendency to stress the impor- tance of irrigation at the expense of weeding and soil-working results in more weeds than plants. Season. It is both convenient and cheaper to sow seeds in nursery beds at the break of the monsoon. Transplanting. The seedlings may be retained in the original seed-beds till the following February when they should be dug out with a ball of earth and planted two feet apart in another bed. These transplants should be irrigated right through the summer. At the break of the following monsoon, they should be shifted again and put out three feet apart. Seedlings picked out twice under nursery conditions get accustomed to transplanting shock, and their root system is prevented from getting unwieldy. At the break of the 152 PLANTING TREES AND THEIR CARE third monsoon when the plants are two years old, they are ready for their roadside homes. Transplants should be carefully dug out and, as far as possible, any injury to the root system avoided. An irrigation or two just before picking out makes the soil soft and easy to work. Injured roots are best cut clean with a sharp knife. The ball of earth around each plant can be kept in place by a piece of gunny bag or straw tied round by a piece of string, and stitched where the lead is long. The gunny bag is to be kept moist during transit. It is advisable to cut down transpiration during the transplanting period by reducing the leaf surface. With the exception of the leaves on the leading shoots all leaves may be nipped off with a sharp pair of scissors and not plucked anyhow. Plants put out at the break of the rains take a fortnight to three weeks to get established. A delay of two to three weeks may make all the difference between success and failure. Most plants stop growth by the end of October, and irrigation, where possible, must begin at the beginning of the following March to take full advantage of the growth in spring. Protection against frost. The rigours of excessively frosty weather are very much reduced by a protective cover, irrigation and loosening of soil. Big and sturdy transplants usually manage to send in roots deep enough during the very first monsoon to bridge them over the following summer, rendering irrigation un- necessary where not available. 153 CHAPTER XX ORNAMENTAL, FLOWERING, FOLIAGE AND SHADE TREES OTRICTLY speaking, all trees which are not cone bearing are flowering trees. O In some trees the flowers are brightly coloured as in gul mohur and Spathodea, and in others they are small, inconspicuous and green as in'Asokan. Trees which have showy flowers deserve to be classified as "Ornamental Flowering Trees" to distin- guish them from trees with inconspicuous flowers which are otherwise desirable on account of their beautiful foliage and have been classified as "Ornamental Foliage Trees". While most of the ornamental flowering trees are deciduous, and a few are evergreen, nearly all the ornamental foliage trees are evergreen. Some of the orna- mental foliage trees are particularly suitable for planting as shade trees along roads and in parks on account of their thick spreading crowns. A scrutiny of the lists of ornamental flowering trees shows that only a few are indigenous, and the majority are exotics introduced from foreign countries like Madagascar, South Africa, Tropical and South America, Java, Malaya, Burma and China. While some of these trees like gul mohur and gul-i-chin have become fairly popular, there are a number of others which are still unknown to the layman, as no effort has been made to popularize them by propaganda. Boys and girls in schools should be taught the names of these beautiful trees and parties of school girls and bpys should be taken to public gardens to show these trees to them when they are in flower. The average man has an aversion for complicated Latin names. Latin botanical names have their merit, particularly on account of their inter- national use and accuracy. On the other hand, popular names are often vague and have been indifferently used by various persons. If mental laziness is overcome, one should have no difficulty in mastering botanical names. Even illiterate mails learn to pronounce difficult English and botanical names in a comparatively short time; so there is no valid reason why educated persons should find much difficulty with them. Though Latin names are to be preferred on account of their accuracy and international usage, there is no harm in having popular names in simple Hindustani as well. Most of our indigenous flowering trees have Indian names and these require only to be popularized. On the other hand, there are a number of foreign trees which have no Hindustani names. For these the present author has coined new names, and these can be easily popularized in schools, universities and gardening institu- tions. Name plates with both Latin and Hindustani names should be fixed on selected specimen trees in all our public parks and gardens, so that the common man too may learn to identify them rather than stand and gape in wonder at indecipherable Latin names. 154 ORNAMENTAL, FLOWERING, FOLIAGE AND SHADE TREES PHENOLOGY " DATE OF t 1 FLOWING OF TAMAWND(I9S4-SS) PHENOLOGY DATE OF FLOVCMINO OF MAIMO (ltS4*fS) PHENOLOGY C DATE OF ^ FLOWeMINO OF AtUL(ltS4.Sl) PHENOLOGY DATE OF FLOWERING OF NEEM(ltS4-lf) 155 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA The flowering of trees and crops is intimately connected with temperature, and it occurs later and later in the season as one moves from the South to the North ; the delay in flowering being of the order of four days for every degree variation in latitude northwards. For example, mango flowers in Travancore-Cochin about the first week of December, in Hyderabad-Deccan, about the first week of January, in Gujarat and Central India, about the first week of February, and in the Punjab about the first week of March. Mm flowers on the first of January in Malabar, on the first of February in Mysore, in the first week of March in Central India, in the first week of April in Northern India and the Punjab area, and in the first week of May in the sub-Himalayan area. Similar variations are found in the flowering of tamarind and babul. Under an All-India Phenological Scheme, four trees mango, nim, tamarind and babul were selected for the study of the data of the flowering period. These trees grow in all the states, from Cape Comorin to the Himalayas, and can truly be called Indian trees, as they have an all-India spread. Phenological observa- tions were made on important phytophases like the flowering, fruit setting, and maturity of the fruit in respect of these trees, and isochrones for each phytophase were drawn on maps. Isochrones for the earliest dates of flowering of the four trees under ob- servation during the year 1954-55 arc shown in figures 1 to 4. It will be seen that in the case of all the four trees, flowering takes place earliest in the southern parts of the country, and later towards the North. Further, the variations in the time of flowering of the mango tree from the ex- treme South (about latitude 80N) to the extreme North (about latitude 30N) is roughly from first December to first March (90 days). In other words, the flowering of the mango tree appears to be delayed by nearly four days for every degree of latitudinal variation northwards. It is interesting to note that this is in agreement with the Bioclimatic Law formulated by Hopkins for North America. What is true of the flowering of these four trees is also true of most of the other flowering trees as well, and these maps can be taken as approximate guides for ascertaining the flowering period of other trees as well. 156 ORNAMENTAL, FLOWERING, FOLIAGE AND SHADE TREES ORNAMENTAL FLOWERING TREES Serial No. Natural order Botanical English & Indian name I- 1. Apocyanaceac Plumeria Pagoda tree; P. acuttfo- Hindi : chameli lia Poir. gul-i-chin ; Bengali : dalana- phula\ Kannada : Colour of flowers & period of flowering White March-April and July to October Gujarat! : dolochampo\ Malayalam : arali; Marathi : khairchampa; Tamil : ilatt atari; Telugu : arhataffmruru\ Oriya : golochi Description A small tree, 10 to 12 feet high; bare stern; crooked branches bearing termi- nal clusters of broad lan- ceolate leaves, capped with large corymbs of fragrant flowers. Native of Mexico and Guate- mala Gardening notes Easily propagated by cut- tings in July and August. Allow the cuttings to wilt before planting. Can thrive in sandy and stony soil with a rainfall of 25 inches or upwards. There is a variety with white stem and branches which appear to be limn washed ; common in Travancore. do. P. rubra Frangipani; Red Linn Hindi : lal champa March -April and July to October Has red flowers. do. P. alba White White A dwarf tree bearing cl us- Piopagatcd by cuttings. Linn. Frangipani; March-April ters of dark-green ovate There are a number of Tamil : peru; & July to leaves. It is the prettiest hybrid plumerias desig- Telugu : October tree of the Plumeria genus natcd by such names as veyyivarahalu and is almost evergreen. 'tuberculala magnifica* Native of India, is seen 'lutea,' 'Rene', etc., avail- in ancient Kushana able at the Royal Agri- Sculptures. Horticultural Society's Garden at Calcutta. I have seen a few of them in flower, and some arc very fine, with flowers dis- tinctly larger than in the commonly grown varieties. 4. do. Wnghtia tinetoria R. Br. II-5. Bignoni- Bignonia aceae crispa Buch- Ham. Dudhi Red A small tree with an ivory May white stem which bears numerous red flowers scattered among leaves in the month of May. Padiri White A very handsome tree May-June with drooping boughs, glossy leaves and funnel- shaped delicately fragrant flowers. A South Indian tree, also grows in Bengal. Suitable for moist districts only. 157 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA Serial No. 6. Natural order Botanic Bignoni- accac Jacaranda mimosae- folia D. Don. Jacaranda, nili gul mohur R. Colour of flowers & period of flowering Violet blue March-April Description A small tree, 15 to 30 feet high with fern-like bi- pinnate leaves, and loose pyramidal panicles of 40 to 100 blue flowers. A native of Brazil. Gardening notes Propagated by seed. Suit- table for dry areas. Stands pruning well. Starts flow- ering at the age of five years and after 20 years becomes ugly and should be headed off. Quite common in the com- pounds of houses, parti- cularly those of Secretariat bungalows at Lucknow, at Forest College, Dehra Dun and at New Delhi. 7. do. Spathodea The Fountain Orange A tall tree growing to a l.S.eampa- tree or Scarlet crimson height of 70 feet, large nulata Bell tree or Tulip February- odd pinnate leaves; gor- Beauv. tree; Kannada: March geous terminal panicles nirukavi\ of erect orange-crimson Telugu : patadi flowers. A native of Tropical Africa. One of the finest trees for scenic planting. Appears very attractive whrn grown in clumps or avenues. Can be seen at its best at the Willingdon Sports Club, Bombay. Suited to districts with 20 to 40 inches of rainfall. Easily propagated from root-suckers or from cuttings. Also raised from srrd. Demands rich, well- drained soil. Widely planted in Hyderabad (Andhra). do. 2. S.nilotica Seem do. do. Smaller tree with bright flowers. More beautiful than S. campanulata. There are five or six trees behind Victoria's statue, in Alfred Park, Allahabad, which arc a glorious sight in March. do. Jccomclla Wavy Leafed Orange A small tree; leaves undulata Tecomella; yellow greyish green with wavy Seem. Hindi : rugtrora; March-April edges; flowers large, Tecoma Marathi : orange yellow, in bunches undulata rakhtreora; of 5 to 10 at the ends of G. Don. Punjabi : lahura small lateral branches, very handsome when in full bloom. Easily propagated from seed or cuttings. Flourishes in dry dis- tricts. Common in desert areas of the Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat. 158 ORNAMENTAL, FLOWERING, FOLIAGE AND SHADE TREES Colour of Serial Natural Botanical Englteh & flowers & No. order name fMiif|ffl names period of Description flowering 10. Bignoni- Milling- Cork tree or tree Silvery white It is a tall, straight, very accae Ionia jasmine; flowers appear ornamental tree. horUnsis Hindi : okas nun, in April-June Linn. nun chameli; and Novem- Bengali : okas nun; ber-December. Tamil : karkku, The flowers kat malli; are delight- Telugu : kavuki fully fragrant. III-ll. Bixaceae CochL:- Yellow Silk Deep yellow A small tree 8 to 18 feet pcrmum Cotton tree; February- high. Golden yellow gossypium Hindi : gooloc 9 March flowers appear when the D. C. galgal; Bengali: tree is leafless. golgol; Kannada : anasinaburaga, bcttatavare; Gujarat! : kadachogund; Malayalam : appakutakka, chempanni\ Marathi : galgal, goner; Punjabi: kumbi; Tamil: kanntgaratti) kattilavu; Telugu : adaviburaga, akshotamu; Oriya: btntyatniyaatnt, ganian* IV-12. Boragin- Cordia Scarlet Cordia; Orange-red A small tree of dwarf aceae sebestena Hindi : lal lasora or scarlet habit and compact Linn. R.; Kannada : January- growth, rarely more than chalUkendala-y March or 15 feet high; wrinkled Tamil : throughout leaves; flowers orange- aechinaruvihli; the year red in large open clusters Tclug^u : virigi at the ends of branches. Imported from Cuba and Tropical America. Gardening notes Cultivated all over India both in gardens and avenues. Being a xerophytic plant flourishes in dry areas. Propagated by seed or by layers. V-13. Combrct- Ttrmlnalia The Arjun; Creamy aceac arjuna Tamil : vcllamarda, flowers of Bcdd. kulamaruthu; cup shape Telugu : ytrmadd\\ which resemble those of myrobalan March-June It is a tall evergreen tree with a smooth grey bark. Leaves are oblong and opposite. It is found throughout India, Burma and Ceylon, usually on the banks of rivers and streams. 159 17 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA Colour of Serial Natural Botanical EngUeh * flower* & No. order name period of flowering Description VI- 14. Capparid- Crataeva Caper tree; White A small tree 10 to 12 feet accac religiosa Hindi : barna; April high, crooked branches; Forst F. Bengali : barun\ becomes laden with pale (C.nurvala) Kannada : yellowish flowers in the bilpatrii last week of April. It Gujarati : varno\ flowers in leafless condi- Malayalam : kilt; tion and is very pretty Marathi : indeed. Is suitable for haravarna; planting in triangular Punjabi : barna; plots in towns. Tamil : adicharanam\ Telugu : vitvaram; Oriya : barun VII-15. Dilleni- DilUnia Hindi : chdta\ White An erect evergreen tree, aceae iWfVa Bengali: chalita; July 30 to 40 feet high, Linn. Kannada : rounded crown; leaves bcttadakanagal; broad, pointed, with Gujarati : karmbal; toothed margin. Flowers Malayalam : large, white and fragrant, Chalita; borne singly at the ends Marathi : karmbcl; of branches in July. Com- Tamil : akku', mon in Bengal and Bihar. Trlugu : kalinga; Oriya : chalota VIII-I6. Lyth- Lager- Queen's Flowrr Mauve A small-sized evergreen raceac stroemia or Pride of India; purple or tree with light grey /. L.flos- Hindi : arjuna; Mauvr smooth bark. In moist reginae Bengali : jarul\ pink districts it is a large tree R-tz. Kannada: challa April-May but in dry districts it is holcdachalla; July-August seldom 15 to 20 feet high; Malayalam : flowers when only shrub- atampu; by in size; mauve purple Marathi : bondara\ or pinkish flowers in ter- Tamil : kadali\ minal panicles one foot Telugu : varagogu', to two feet high. Oriya : any Gardening note* It is a very hardy and drought-resistant tree. Raised from seed in the monsoons. Common in U 1 1 a r Pradesh. Can be seen at Lucknow. Frost-tender and slow- growing. Propagated from seed sown in monsoons. Suit- able for moist localities. Frost-tender. Grown from seed; a moisture-loving tree, does well on river banks. Commonly cultivated in Gorakhpur district. There are some nice specimens of this tree in Sikandar B a g h , Lucknow. Transplant when one year old; flowers three to five years after planting. Heavy pruning of side- branches is necessary. 17. do. 2. L.thorellii Queen's Flower White and Gagnep or Pride of India; mauve Hindi : bari July- sanwani R. September A dwarf bushy tree with mottled mauve flowers. Easily grown from seed. Can be seen in Sikandar Bagh, Lucknow. 160 ORNAMENTAL, FLOWERING, FOLIAGE AND SHADE TREES Serial No. 1X-18. Natural Botanical Legum- inosae Amherstia nobilis Wall. English & Indian name Colour of flower* & period of flowering Description Noble Amherstia Salmon-pink A medium-sized tree with with golden drooping leaves with yellow spots sprays of salmon pink on petals. November & April flowers tipped with gol- den yellow spots. Gardening note* Considered by some to be the most beautiful of all the flowering trees. Native of Burma. Flourishes in Bengal and other humid localities. Dies in North India on account of hot dry winds and frost. 19. do Enterolo- The Rain tree; Pink and It is a large, handsome, Originally brought from bittm sQtnon Hindi and white spreading, evergreen tree. Central America; came or Pithcco- Bengali : belaiti flowers; It is grown either in to India through Ceylon. lobium siris; Tamil : March to groups or in avenurs. It saman. amawagai\ May and is a very quick growing Malayalam : again in tree and is of great value plavu Nov. and for fuel. December do Peltopho- The Rusty Shield- Yellow. It is a tall tree about 80 Tree is native of Ceylon rum inerme bearer or Copper Flowering fret high. Very dense and and the Andamans; or eaesal- Pod; Tamil: period is dark when in full foliage. propagated by seed. pinia iner- iyavakai; Telugu : long and mis konda-chinta variable. Naves. April is the full bloom season. Legumin- Butea Flame of the Scarlet A common jungle tree, Propagated from fresh osae frondosa Forest ; Hindi : orange which covers acres of seed, which germinates Papilion- Roxb. dhak, polos-, February- waste land. In the months easily. aceae B. monos- Bengali : kinaka; March of February and March, perma Kannada : it flowers in leafless con- (Lam) brahma vriksha; dition, and becomes Kuntze. Gujarati : kdkria\ covered with flaming Malayalam : scarlet-orange fl o w e r s brahmavriksham\ with black calyces. Varie- Marathi : ties with canary yellow kakracha\ and apricot colour flowers Punjabi : chachra; have been recorded. Tamil : kattumuntkku; Telugu : kimsukamu; Oriya-.tthjiifo 161 FLOWERING TREES IN INDIA Serial No. 20. Natural order jilcal Englisfe ft Colour of flowers & period oi flowering Caesal- Bauhinia Mountain Ebony, Purple to pinioidrac 7. B. pur- Purple Bauhinia; lilac or red purea Linn. Hindi : gulabi kachnar R; Bengali : bwakanchan; Kannada : Malayalam : suvannamandaram; Marathi : atamtti; Punjabi: karalli; Tamil: kalamlaichi; Telugu : bodanta; Oriya : boroda November Description A medium-sized ever- green tree. A very beauti- ful tree which deserves greater popularity. The only defect is top drying of branches. Gardening Flourishes in high well- drained soil. Easily affected by low tempera- tures. Sow the seeds in lines in the beginning of the monsoons. Trans- plant from nursery in the first year. Gut off branches which lean out. 21. do. 2.B.tomtn- Kachnar Pale yellow An evergreen shrubby tosa tree bearing numerous Linn. pale yellow flowers during rainy months. 22. do. 3.B. Pink Bauhinia; Pink triandra Hindi : lal kachnar October & Roxb. R. November A small bushy tree with pinkish flowers. 23. do. 4. B. variegata Variegated Pink, white Flowers white with light It is a very beautiful tree Linn. Bauhinia; Hindi : kachnar (baisakhi); Bengali : bidul, kovidara; Kannada: arisinantigi; Malayalam : koindauun} Marathi : kanchan; Tamil : mandarai; Telugu: bodanta; Oriya : boroda and purple yellow spots or pink with varieties red spots or purplish, February- appearing when the tree March is leafless. and an avenue of these three varieties along with B. Krugii is lovely. 24. do. 5. B. Sufaid kachnar White A small tree about 10 feet Grown in Sikandar Bagh, acwmnata All the year high, nearly always in Lucknow. Linn. round blossom with numerous white flowers. 25. do. 6.B. MMI_J cvr/irai Roxb. Si^faid kachnar Rosy white A scandent shrub with April small leaves. 162 ORNAMENTAL, FLOWERING, FOLIAGE AND SHADE TREES Colour of Serial Natural Botanical English ft flowers ft No. order name Indian name* period of flowering 26. Cacsalpi- 7. B. alba Sufaid kachnar White nioideae Buch- April Ham. Description A dwarf, round-headed tree. Gardening notes 27. do. Brownea West Indian Scarlet red A small tree 8 to 10 feet 1. B. Mountain Rose March high; of handsome com- coccinia pact growth, with dazz- Loefl. ex ling heads of scarlet Griseb. flowers. There is no mass flowering, however. Propagated by layers; does well in moist cli- mate. There is a hand- some specimen in Sikandar Bagh, Lucknow. Unsuitable for northern India as it is killed by loo can only be grown in sheltered spots. 28. do. 2. B. ariza West Indian Rose red A small spreading tree Benth. Mountain Rose March with beautiful foliage. Leaves droop in heat. 29. do. 3.B. Rose of Venezuela Bright red grandiccps March Jacq. Native of West Indies. A large-headed variety; mottled foliage. Should be grown in sheltered shady place. 30. do. Cassia Indian Labur- /. C. fistula num or Golden Linn. Shower; Hindi : amaltas; Bengali : amultas, bandarlati; Kannada : aragina; Malayalam : konna\ kritamalam; Marathi : bahava; Punjabi: alash; Tamil: appai; Tclugu : aragvadhamu; Oriya : sandari Yellow A small hardy tree, sheds April-May its leaves in March, and produces pendulous race- mes of large bright yellow flowers in April and May. Young leaves coppery red. A very common tree found wild at the foot of the hills of Uttar Pradesh and Assam. Can be seen to best advantage in Lucknow. Makes a beautiful avenue. Hardy, xerophytic, not eaten by goats. Boil the seeds for five minutes before sow- ing to soften the hard coat. Transfer the seed- lings to baskets in first rains. Will grow in poor soil. Suitable for dry or moderately wet districts. 31. do. 2. C. The Java cassia; Pink jawiua Hindi :j